Fly agaric, coca, ayahuasca, and kava are potent medicinal herbs that have a rich and ancient history of traditional use. This article explores the cultural origins and modern exploitation of mind-altering plants.
Psychoactive plants and fungi have been used for millennia amongst indigenous cultures around the world. Many of these cultures consider plants as sacred tools of human evolution and consciousness and integral to their ideas around spiritual connection. From Canada, via Gabon and India, to Australia, there are numerous mind altering fungi, cacti, shrubs and herbs. Despite this rich history of ancestral use, many of these natural medicines have since been synthesised into recreational drugs like cocaine and heroin and are now illegal in many countries. After more than half a century of the global drug war, legal accessibility is slowly being relaxed, and the use of psychedelic medicines is now being explored by clinicians and researchers for their therapeutic potential.
Included below are a selection of psychoactive plants which have traditionally been used in different cultures for spiritual and ceremonial purposes.
Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria)
Fly agaric is the iconic red and white mushroom historically rooted in folklore and ritual. It grows across large parts of the world, including in the UK and the US and is rising in popularity for spiritual use. Fly agaric has been used ritualistically for centuries throughout Eastern Siberia and Scandinavia and features strongly in Norse mythology and shamanic traditions (1). Fly agaric is also a key ingredient in the drink ‘Soma’ which was referenced in the Vedas (one of the oldest sacred Hindu texts) and used for spiritual divination (2).
Eaten raw and without careful preparation, it is toxic and can be deadly. However, when it is carefully prepared and dosed properly, its effects range from soothing and pain relieving to euphoric.
Medical herbalists will sometimes use amanita in safe doses for insomnia, nerve pain, anxiety and cognitive decline. The mushroom needs to be prepared in such a way that the toxicity of the compounds are neutralised and it can be ingested safely. The active constituents in fly agaric are ibotenic acid and muscimol which can cause hallucinations (3). Ibotenic acid is an agonist of glutamate receptors (primarily NMDA and trans-ACPD receptor sites), resulting in an influx of calcium ions to the nerve cells. This causes excitotoxicity (overstimulation), which can result in mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and eventually cell death(4).
Fly agaric is legal in every US state aside fromLouisiana. It is sold in the form of tinctures, joints, gummies, and capsules, although fly agaric remains illegal for consumption and possession in the UK. Medicinally, fly agaric is used to reduce stress, pain and insomnia. (5). There is currently a lack of human clinical trials into the effect of Amanita muscaria .Research has, however, been conducted into the therapeutic effects of the active constituent muscimol, a GABA receptor agonist which calms the nervous system. A 2024 study on rodents suggested muscimol has anxiolytic and antidepressant effects (6). A further study suggested that the mechanism of action responsible for this effect is its action on increasing dopamine production (7).
There are also studies examining the effect of the active compound muscimol on treating Huntington’s disease, a condition with very limited treatment options. Muscimol is structurally similar to GABA, and also affects movement because of its influence on nerve cells within the muscles. Although muscimol did not improve the patients’ cognitive functions, chorea (involuntary movement) was significantly improved in the most severely hyperkinetic patient (8). Another rodent study showed that muscimol from fly agaric helped neuropathic pain, again via GABA-A receptor stimulation (9). Medical herbalists use amanita in balms for topical application to treat nerve pain.
Amanita is a fascinating and sacred mushroom in many societies with potential to treat a variety of conditions. However, modern research is sparse and great care must be taken with fungi with such potency.
Ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi)
Ayahuasca is a traditional Amazonian plant found in Peru, Brazil and Colombia. Indigenous communities including the Shipibo have consumed ayahuasca for centuries as a sacred medicine for spiritual, physical and psychological healing. The brewing of ayahuasca is seen as a symbolic and sacred process in itself, carried out only by indigenous shamans. The drink is a mixture of the ayahuasca vine and chacrona (Psychotria viridis) leaves (10). The DMT contained in the leaves only becomes psychoactive for humans when it is combined with the vine. Emerging research suggests this brew may help break addictive patterns of behaviour, reduce PTSD symptoms and ease depression (11,12) As with any psychedelic medicine, this plant is best treated with care and respect. The abuse and reckless consumption of the plant can result in damaging and destabilising experiences.
The consumption of ayahuasca is rooted in ceremony, and this forms a pivotal aspect of the overall experience. The shamans who hold the ceremonies are specially trained to uphold the safety and wellbeing of the participants, facilitating a transformative and supportive journey. Proper shamanic training can take decades and those who do this training are chosen by tradition and lineage. There has however, recently been an upsurge in people purporting as shamanic practitioners from the West who assume this position without the training or lineage required. This can result in the exploitation and damage of vulnerable individuals seeking a healing experience.
These plants are highly psychoactive, meaning they can have a profound effect on the mind of the individual. This can be both incredibly life changing, as well as carry a degree of risk. It is important to recognise the impact on not only participants, but also the impact of this appropriation on indigenous communities who have protected and nurtured these traditions for millennia (13,14).
Ayahuasca ceremonies can often be charged at a premium, creating a complex issue in local communities, on the one hand a recognition and respect of indigenous plant knowledge is progressive, however the cultural appropriation of this ritual and subsequent commercial incentives create a problematic cultural issue (15).
This rise in ayahuasca tourism and popularity has resulted in the plants becoming endangered and subsequently putting more pressure on the communities from where this ceremony originated (16).
This is not just the case for ayahuasca, but for many plants coming from ancient traditions. The ESPD55 conference hosted by the McKenna Academy is a fantastic resource for learning more about these topics, with talks from experts David Rodriguez and Dr Michael Coe highlighting the power and plight of ayahuasca specifically.
Coca (Erythroxylum coca)
In the Andes, people have chewed coca leaves for thousands of years, and it is this leaf that gives Coca-Cola its distinctive flavour. However, coca leaves have also been maligned as the root ingredient of cocaine, and made internationally illegal despite the long history of use to boost energy and treat ailments in Bolivia, Peru and Colombia. The growth in popularity of cocaine in the West has contributed to the violence and damaging effects of drug trafficking around the world.
Coca is a traditional medicine across much of Latin America, and in traditional Andean medicine, coca is primarily used for all gastrointestinal conditions. It is used for both constipation and diarrhoea, which seemingly conflicting, is as a result of the chemodiversity of plant compounds offering a range of therapeutic actions (17). In this regard, coca can be classed as an amphoteric (balancing effect) medicine. This action is influenced by the receptors available for binding at the time. Other medicinal uses of coca include motion sickness and acute altitude sickness as well as for fatigue and boosting energy for physical activities (18).
Coca is most famed for its traditional action of boosting sociability as well as its use in rituals and ceremonies (19). The pharmacology of this is in part due to the low concentration of cocaine in the leaf as well as other alkaloids (20). When coca leaves are chewed (the traditional way of consuming the medicine), a low dose of cocaine is absorbed through the oral mucosa. The low doses, method of administration and other molecules which mitigate side effects result in coca leaves having a mildly stimulating and euphoric effect. In these doses, coca is safe and not at risk of becoming addictive. Cocaine is produced biosynthetically to maximise the effect, and is often combined with a whole range of other substances. The addiction and toxicity is as a result of the high concentration levels of cocaine causing a rapid rise in blood concentration leading to a much stronger effect and potential for abuse and side effects (21).
The World Health Organization recently announced a review of coca’s status, and there has been a fresh push from Bolivia for change in response to this as the coca plant is safe and even medicinal, and it is the illicit cocaine industry which causes social and political issues. Coca beers are now increasingly popular in Bolivia too. Considered sacred, they are also used as offerings in ceremonies, and it’s because of these traditional uses, as in Bolivia, that Peru allows some legal production.
Kava (Piper methysticum)
Kava is a plant popular across the South Pacific that is prepared into a traditional beverage and used ritualistically and in social situations. It is said to have a similar calming effect to alcohol, and is a symbol of peace in Vanuatu, Fiji, and Hawaii. Kava however, does not appear to have the same addictive qualities as alcohol and many prescription pharmaceuticals, and there is no association with antisocial or violent behaviour (22).
Kava is used by herbalists for its analgesic effects, anxiety and to support insomnia. It relaxes the nervous system as it acts on GABA receptors (the same receptor class that popular pharmaceuticals such as Xanax and benzodiazepines). A landmark clinical study in the Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology has found that kava use significantly reduces symptoms of chronic anxiety disorder without the risk of dependency or side effects (23). Another systematic review showed that kava is effective for anxiety for short term use but not for chronic anxiety, however the risk of liver toxicity increases if it is taken for longer than 8 weeks (24).
Kava has a rich history, as it has been used in Europe since the 1800’s (25), but has been banned in Europe from 2003 due to concerns around liver toxicity (26). Traditionally, kava is prepared using water, however when the medicine became popular in the West, alcohol and other solvents were used. This process removed the antioxidant glutathione which protects the body from liver damage, and so the prevalence of liver damage after consuming kava supplements became increasingly common leading to a ban across Europe (27). Many of the issues reported in the West have not been reported in indigenous communities and contributing factors include preparation methods, contaminants, cultivars and plant parts used, chemical agents in commercialised products and drug interactions. This is an example of why traditional methods of picking and preparation should be respected when making medicines whilst also demonstrating a health risk as a result of appropriation.
Final thoughts
This article only touches on a handful of the natural psychoactive medicines available in the world. It is evident that throughout history humans from diverse cultures have used an array of plants for spiritual, medicinal and altered states of consciousness.
The popularisation of psychedelic medicines has risen in conjunction with the global mental health crisis. It has also risen in line with the environmental crises which has perhaps nudged people towards more natural and traditional ways of being, as people seek alternative and more harmonious ways to live. These medicines are very potent, and often life changing, which is why it is of pivotal importance to honour and respect the traditions and cultures they originate from. Simultaneously, they offer vast potential, and have a diverse array of potent pharmacological activity, and therefore rigorous scientific research should continue to be pursued alongside a recognition of their historical and traditional use.
Psychedelic experiences can be profound and positive, however they should be approached with care and consideration as it is still illegal to consume them in many parts of the world. Where possible, and to ensure safety and wellbeing they should be taken under the supervision of someone who is qualified in their usage.
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