As devil’s claw grows in global popularity for its medicinal virtues, is this herb’s fame putting it in danger of extinction?
Devil’s claw is perhaps one of the most popular herbs within the various materia medica of herbal medicine. Although it has only fairly recently been added to the broad range of herbs used today, its popularity has grown fast, raising concerns about the sustainability of the trade with this plant. Where does it actually come from? Is it cultivated or come from the wild? Are the plant populations harvested sustainably? When we use herbs, especially those trending, we need to ask these questions to make sure our relationship with the plants is not costing the plants their existence.
Where does devil’s claw come from?
Devil’s claw refers to two different species of the Harpagophytum genus, namely H. procumbens and H. zeyheri, with two and three subspecies, respectively. Devil’s claw owes its name to its characteristic fruits, comprising a flattened woody capsule with spiny, hook-like appendages. The genus Harpagophytum is part of the sesame family — the Pedaliaceae. They are herbaceous plants that grow creeping stems from primary taproots. Over the growing season, the plant develops secondary storage tubers, and it is typically these, which are used for medicinal purposes.
Devil’s claw is found growing wild in most countries in the sandy Kalahari areas in southern Africa. H. procumbens is found mainly in Namibia, but can also be found in Botswana and in northern regions of South Africa. H. zeyheri occurs in these three countries, as well as in Angola, Zambia and Mozambique (1). Being a desert plant, it is well adapted to the dry harsh conditions, as well as being grazed and walked on by animals. They prefer savanna-like habitats and are sensitive to grass dominance.
Devil’s claw as medicine
The indigenous San and Khoi peoples of Southern Africa, have been using the tubers medicinally for centuries. In 1907, the plant and its use was discovered by Europeans and the first products containing Harpagophytum procumbens came onto the market, mainly for the treatment of arthritis and rheumatism(2). Since then, devil’s claw has become a popular herbal remedy in the West for the treatment of pain and inflammation, with ever increasing demand.
Trade of devil’s claw
In Germany, H. procumbens has become the third most frequently used medicinal plant — the first two being Ginkgo biloba and Hypericum perforatum — with sales reaching €31 million in 2002 (1). Namibia exports the largest quantities of plant material. Their exports of Harpagophytum have increased from c. 180 tonnes in 1975 to over approximately 1000 tonnes in 2002 (1). It is not known how much of this is H. procumbens and how much H. zeyheri. Often these species are mixed.
Very little is known about the export figures from Botswana and South Africa (CITES proposal). Lavelle (2022) estimates the annual world market of devil’s claw, at 700 tonnes, with an approximate retail value of US$300 per kilogram, and the overall industry worth an estimated US$210 million per annum (3). Ninety-eight percent of the value is added onto the goods, once it is exported from Namibia. In-country earnings constitute 2% of this overall value. Namibian exporters capture 0.7% — traders 0.45%, and harvesters 0.45%. As there are only five or fewer exporters who share the 0.7% value, whereas the 0.45% value going to the harvesters is split between up to 5,000 harvesters, the profit is significantly higher for exporters than for the harvesters who are often exploited (3).
Devil’s claw harvest
Often harvesters work in groups, either organised by middlemen, who sell on to exporters, or by NGOs or church groups. They are usually from very rural areas, with limited possibilities to make a living. The climate is very hot and dry, and the soil tends to be of poor quality, all of which makes agriculture very difficult. The harvest of wild plants therefore presents a unique financial opportunity for these people and although it does not provide much in terms of income, it is not negligible (1).
The harvest is predominantly done by women and the age group of harvesters is between 40 and 60. Younger people tend to seek more work on farms or in urban areas. Devil’s claw harvesting typically takes place during the rainy season, from November to June/July each year. The rain makes the soil softer, which makes the digging easier and it makes the plant easier to identify. (4).
Typically, the storage tubers are harvested and the remaining plant is left to grow. Studies indicate that an average of 70% of plants are not killed by the harvest (5). The land, from which Harpagophytum is harvested is usually communally owned, and overseen by local tribal chiefs. Although more and more private farmers have started harvest too, to supplement their income from animal husbandry. An individual may harvest approximately 15 plants a day and 1620 plants per season.
Sustainability concerns
Due to the increase in international trade of this herb, concerns were raised regarding the sustainability of devil’s claw at an international level in April 2000, at the (CITES) eleventh Conference of Parties (CoP 11) held in Gigiri, Kenya. A proposal was issued by Germany, to add both species to the Appendix II list (6). However, Namibia and other southern African range states did not support the listing and the proposal was withdrawn. Reason for the opposition was a fear that the CITES listing would have a negative impact on the livelihood of thousands of devil’s claw harvesters who are some of the poorest and most marginalised people in southern Africa (5). There was also a lack of scientific data regarding the population status, harvest impact etc. of this plant.
Estimating the overall population status of Harpagophytum seems to be very challenging. This is due to the large habitat range within South African countries, and that Harpagophytum tends to grow in a very patchy way. The area covered by one population rarely exceeds 200 by 200 m. This makes estimates very tricky. Additionally, so far only a small area of the overall habitat (approx. 0.03% has been sampled for their plant populations (5). Based on this, only very conservative estimates are possible.
Protective regulation
The protection of these two species is currently not regulated internationally, however, they are nationally and regionally. In Namibia, Harpagophytum species are protected under Schedule 9 of the Nature Conservation Ordinance of 1975. From that year on a permit was required for the collection, transport, possession, and/or sale of Harpagophytum. Today there are several organisations set up to protect the plant population as well as support harvesters to apply sustainable harvest practices and to increase their share in the profit.
One such project is the Sustainably Harvested Devil’s Claw (SHDC) project, including 328 registered harvesters, organised into harvester committees. The project had been funded by various NGOs including Oxfam and was set up in 1997. This project has facilitated better wages for the harvesters, who now deal with exporters directly. Additionally, it has helped to empower harvesters economically in various ways. Environmental surveys done regularly as part of the project also enable monitoring of population status and the impact of harvest rates (7). This project is a good example of how social and environmental sustainability usually go hand in hand.
Cultivation exploration
Harpagophytum is almost exclusively harvested from the wild. It seems to be a difficult herb to cultivate and it takes up to four years to mature. A long growth time makes cultivation very challenging for any grower. However, cultivation projects are under way. A German company MartinBauer has partnered up with South African company Grassroots Natural Products to investigate the possibility of cultivating Harpagophytum procumbens whilst maintaining sufficient levels of active constituents. This is a crucial issue, since plants may change their phytochemical make up in the process of being cultivated. In 2003, they planted their first large scale crops, with an estimated production of 40 tonnes (8). While this may indeed present ways of protecting wild species, these quantities are still way off the global annual consumption.
Solutions and the future
It is likely that the demand for Harpagophytum will keep increasing, and thus also the harvest from the wild. Currently, there is relatively little data regarding the status of these two plant species, and although current export levels are concerning, it seems that the threat is not imminent. Harpagophytum is neither listed as a CITES II species, nor is its overall population status currently listed as endangered. Yet, if demand keeps dictating the way things go, this may change. We have time to act and address issues before they get out of hand.
Environmental sustainability seems to be inherently linked with the empowerment and support for those people involved with the harvest and management of the land, where the harvest happens. Sustainability projects, which support harvesters and the environment are out there, such as the SHDC project, which exports its harvests under the organic certification system. They are examples of how empowerment, education and environmental monitoring can benefit not just the plant populations, but also help the people involved in doing the hard work of harvesting these plants.
One issue that has not been addressed so far at all, is how climate change is predicted to affect those areas, the harvesters, and the plant populations of Harpagophytum spp. Already considered an extreme climate, with temperatures reaching up to 42°C, how increases in global temperatures affect these areas remains to be seen.
References
- Cole D. The Impact of Certification on the Sustainable Use of Devil’s Claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) in Namibia. The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Non-Wood Forest Products Programme. 2003.
- Lavelle J-J. Towards pro-poor or pro-profit? The governance framework for harvesting and trade of devil’s claw (Harpagophytum spp.) in the Zambezi Region, Namibia. Conservation, Markets & the Environment in Southern and Eastern Africa. 2023:135–165. doi:10.1515/9781800106642-010
- Matlahare T. Harvester and Trade Issues in Botswana. First Regional Devil’s Claw Conference – Windhoek, Namibia, 26th to 28th February 2002. 2002: 111–119.
- Fell, C. (2002). Devil’s Claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) in South Africa: Conservation and Livelihood Issues.
- Raimondo D, Newton D, Fell C, Donaldson J, Dickson B. Devil’s Claw Harpagophytum spp. in South Africa: Conservation and Livelihoods Issues. Traffic Bulletin. 2005: vol. 20, 3.
- CITES Proposal for the Inclusion of Harpagophytum procumbens in Appendix II
- Cole D, Plessis P. Namibian Devil’s Claw (Harpagophytum spp.) A Case Study on Benefit-Sharing Arrangements.
- Reed W. First devil’s claw harvest – progress on sustainability. NutraIngredients Europe. 2004. Accessed May 31, 2024. https://www.nutraingredients.com/Article/2004/03/08/First-devil-s-claw-harvest-progress-on-sustainability.
