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Star anise can be used to relieve colds, flu and digestive discomfort

Star anise

Illicium verum

Illiciaceae

Star anise is perhaps best known for its shikimic acid content, a key compound in the original manufacturing process of the antiviral drug Tamiflu.

Sustainability status

At risk from overharvesting and habitat loss. Read more about our sustainability guide.

Sustainability Status
Key benefits
  • Indigestion
  • Bloating and flatulence
  • Colic or cramps of the digestive tract
  • Loss of appetite
  • Cold and flu
  • Upper respiratory congestion
  • Sinusitis

  • How does it feel?

    The hard eight pointed dried fruits of star anise hold within them an aroma and taste often associated with aniseed complemented by a sweetness reminiscent of liquorice, evoking a feeling of calm and inner warmth.

    Star anise (Illicium verum)
    Star anise (Illicium verum)
    Star anise (Illicium verum)

  • What can I use it for?

    Star anise (Illicium verum)
    Star anise (Illicium verum)

    Star anise is a fantastic herb to keep in the store cupboard both as a culinary spice and its medicinal uses in treating a range of common self-limiting conditions, such as coughs, colds and sinus congestion or mild digestive discomfort such as bloating, colic and flatulence (1).

    As a culinary spice, star anise can be used to flavour a diverse range of foods from curries, meat and fish dishes to sweet foods or fruit. Combined with other spices such as cinnamon, ginger, fennel and cloves, its aromatic, warming and carminative actions make it an ideal addition to a post-meal beverage to support digestion and prevent abdominal discomfort or flatulence (1,2).

    Star anise can be used as an effective home remedy for the treatment of coughs, colds, sinus congestion and catarrh, providing relief from symptoms whilst supporting the immune system through its antiviral properties. For this purpose it combines well with herbs such as elderberry and echinacea for their additional antiviral, antimicrobial and immune-modulating actions (1,2,3,4).

  • Into the heart of star anise

    Star anise (Illicium verum)
    Star anise (Illicium verum)

    In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) star anise is included in the category of herbs that warm the interior and/or expel cold and is considered to have an affinity with the stomach, liver, kidneys and spleen (5).

    In homeopathic medicine, it is also known as Anisum stellarum, and is indicated for similar conditions as seen with the whole plant product including flatulence, infant colic and abdominal discomfort. It is said to be most useful for the treatment of these symptoms in individuals who are often anxious or restless with a nervous temperament and to whom physical discomfort may easily result in irritation (6).

    Beyond its value for either medicinal or culinary use, star anise has long been associated with spiritual and meditative practices. In Japan the tree is planted on sites considered sacred, such as temples and tombs, and the bark processed into incense to burn for purification (2).

    Energetically, star anise is considered to have the qualities of calm and grounding promoting a sense of serene, peaceful tranquillity and emotional balance within one’s life. It may be used as incense or in an essential oil burner to create a harmonious environment conducive to meditative practice (7).

  • Traditional uses

    Star anise (Illicium verum)
    Star anise (Illicium verum)

    The traditional use of star anise medicinally has been recorded throughout the regions of the world where it grows indigenously and in many places these traditional usages continue in modern folk or herbal medicine practices. There is little mention of it in early traditional Western herbalism, most likely due to it only being introduced to Europe for the first time late in the sixteenth century by Sir Thomas Cavendish, an English navigator of that time  (8).

    In China this has been evidenced to date back to the Ming dynastry (CE1368–1644) through its inclusion in the classic herbal text, the Compendium of Materia Medica, as a remedy to be used in the treatment of rheumatism and digestive conditions such as abdominal colic or pain, vomiting, flatulence or dyspepsia. As a tea it was also used for insomnia and anxiety and, seemingly perhaps paradoxically, as a stimulant and to increase libido (3,9,10,11).

    In India the fruits of the plant were traditionally chewed as a carminative and for mild stomach discomfort, whilst in Indonesia star anise was indicated in both the treatment of insomnia and as an external preparation to be used topically after childbirth. Similar traditional uses have been reported in Malaysia (12). 

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Star anise (Illicium verum)
    Star anise (Illicium verum)

    Significant research has evidenced the potential therapeutic actions of star anise, recieving attention as a rich source of shikimic acid, the essential precursor in the manufacture of the antiviral drug Tamiflu used for the treatment of influenza A and B. Yet, star anise is under-represented in the Western materia medica with limited use by practitions. In TCM and Ayurvedic practice, however, star anise is given far greater acknowledgment for its medicinal virtues, alongside herbal traditions from areas of the world where it natively grows.

    Digestive

    The carminative and antispasmodic actions of star anise make it a key ally in relieving symptoms of mild digestive discomfort such as indigestion, bloating and flatulence, colic and cramps of the digestive tract or loss of appetite (1,2,3,4).

    Many practitioners avoid giving star anise to babies and small children, and suggest for conditions like infant colic alternative herbs, such as fennel (1,13).

    In combination with fennel, star anise may also be used to reduce the spasm and muscular tension associated with hernias of the intestine or bladder (4).

    Nervous

    Star anise has been recommended by some practitioners, both historically and within more recent herbal medicine practice as a warming stimulant particularly beneficial to nourishing the male reproductive system and increasing libido (3,14).

    It is also used for its sedative, anxiolytic, anodyne and neuroprotective effects on the nervous system which research has attributed to the presence of the constituent anethole as a major contributor to its phytochemical content (10,12).

    Respiratory

    The antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, bronchodilator and expectorant actions of star anise make it an ideal herb to include in a herbal preparation for the treatment of coughs, colds and catarrh and is considered by practitioners to be a specific for congestion in the maxillary sinuses. In cases of influenza it combines well with herbs such as elderberry and echinacea (1,15). These beneficial qualities extend to the treatment of dry coughs and bronchitis resulting in the common-place inclusion of star anise in formulas such as herbal cough mixtures available to buy over-the-counter from apothecaries, health food stores and some pharmacies (3,10,16).

    Conditions impacting the musculoskeletal system, such as back pain or rheumatism, may benefit from the anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, anodyne and diuretic properties of star anise. It may be included in a more complex herbal formula to be taken internally or used externally in a diluted blend as a massage oil or salve to be applied topically to affected muscles or joints for pain relief (1,4,17).

  • Research

    Star anise (Illicium verum)
    Star anise (Illicium verum)

    Chinese star anise and anise, magic herbs in traditional Chinese medicine and modern pharmaceutical science

    This 2019 review examines the pharmacological effects of the chemical compounds within star anise considered to be of greatest potential efficacy in the development of pharmaceutical drugs. Whilst shikimic acid and anethole were considered to be the most important constituents it was also acknowledged that other compounds such as linalool,  extragol, p-anisaldehyde, acetophenone, pinene and limonene showed significant actions towards promoting overall health and preventing disease.

    Compounds contained within star anise demonstrated antibacterial actions against a number of bacterial strains including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi. In addition to its previously proven use as an anti-viral against the influenza A and B virus strains, it was considered to show promising results in the treatment of resistant herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) (18).

    A comprehensive review of the pharmacology, chemistry, traditional uses and quality control of star anise (Illicium verum Hook. F.): An aromatic medicinal plant

    This review from 2023 indicated that further investigation into the potential prospects of star anise should continue to be a significant focus of future pharmacological research for the future development of pharmaceutical antimicrobial drugs. Star anise has been perhaps most frequently associated with being the source of shikimic acid as a key precursor used in the manufacture of the antiviral drug Tamiflu used for the treatment of influenza and the only drug specifically recommended for use against the H5N1 subtype by the International Health Organisation. However, this study highlights the much broader range of its actions including potential significant antifungal characteristics against strains of fungi including Aspergillus flavus and Candida albicans, alongside its established anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (9).

    Antibacterial activity of Illicium verum essential oil against MRSA clinical isolates and determination of its phyto-chemical components

    The inappropriate use of antibiotics in infectious disease management has been widely acknowledged to have resulted in the emergence of multi-drug resistant strains of bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), which are now frequently untreatable with previously standard antibiotics. Furthermore this is also reported to have led to an increased incidence of adverse drug reactions seen to be antibiotic induced, which in combination has been stated as a cause of serious concern by the World Health Organisation (WHO).

    In response to this increasing issue, this 2021 study examines the potential therapeutic indications of star anise essential oil against MRSA infections with an emphasis on identifying the phytochemical constituents primarily responsible for its antibacterial properties including anethole, linalool, squalene, sitosterol and piperine along with the aromatic volatile compounds associated with the characteristic smell of star anise such as anethole, levomenthol, eucalyptol and estragole.

    Analysis of the resulting data indicates that these phytochemicals yielded promising efficacy in the treatment of multi-drug resistant MRSA with significantly more effective antibacterial activity against the clinical isolates tested than displayed by any of the standard antibiotics used as control studies. Consequently it is suggested that the use of star anise may be a valid therapeutic option for the treatment of multi-drug resistant and highly virulent MRSA infection (19).

    Exploring the pharmacological mechanisms of star anise against COVID‐19 using network pharmacology and molecular docking

    This recent study from 2024 explores the therapeutic potential of the phytochemical constituents found to be present in star anise for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 and investigates the mechanisms of action considered most likely to be responsible for these effects including through modulation of the immune system response and apoptosis, alongside previously evidenced antiviral properties. Analysis of properties of specific active constituents demonstrated a significant reduction in symptoms of chronic lung inflammation as a result of decreased concentration of proinflammatory cytokines considered to be directly associated with the constituent trans-anethole (20).

  • Did you know?

    Star anise (Illicium verum)
    Star anise (Illicium verum)

    The common name of star anise is explained by its star-like shape and flavour similar to that of aniseed or anise (Pimpinella anisum). However, the botanical name of star anise, Illicium verum, originates from the Latin word ‘illicere’ meaning allurement, or to allure, alluding to the attractive and inviting aroma of its leaves and branches  (9). 

    According to the Doctrine of Signatures; a theory dating back to antiquity that claims characteristics of a plant such as shape, growing conditions, colour or patterning are an indication of conditions or symptoms that plant will treat, star anise is seen to resemble the human sinuses and consequently would be indicated in sinus congestion. Although the Doctrine of Signatures is not generally adhered to in modern herbal practice, more recent evidence confirms its efficacy for the treatment of sinus congestion particularly of the maxillaries (15).

    Steam-distilled oil of star anise is a common component as a fragrance in many products such as toothpaste, soaps and creams. The oil is also used for its contribution to the flavour of a wide range of food and drink products including liqueurs, deserts and sweets (2).

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    Star anise is a small evergreen tree with white bark that in its native habitat grows slowly to reach an eventual height of up to 6 m and a trunk of about 25 cm in diameter. Although in the warmer areas of the UK and places with a similar climate it tends to grow as a shrub and rarely exceeds 3 m in height. The leaves are described as lanceolate and have a smooth glossy surface on which tiny clear dots can be seen indicating the presence of the cells containing the volatile oils responsible for the plant’s distinctive aroma. The flowers are hermaphroditic bearing both staminate and pistillate reproductive organs within the same flower and range in colour from white through to red with many distinctly separate petals.

    Trees do not usually produce flowers until they are about ten years old and have three flowering seasons every year, the first of which is during March and April. This first blossoming of the year generally produces flowers that are sterile and do not develop into fruits. A second brief flowering of only a few weeks occurs from July to August producing larger flowers which do develop into fruits although many of these are lost prematurely. The third flowering commences immediately after the second, occasionally overlapping with it, and produces relatively small flowers that will develop into the fruit which will ripen ready for harvest between August and October the following year. These fruits consist of eight dark brown boat shaped carpels of approximately 1 cm in length arranged in the characteristically recognisable star shape attached to a sturdy curved stem. Often they are slightly split open revealing the shiny smooth reddish-brown seeds within (27,28,29).

  • Common names

    • Chinese star anise
    • Badyan
    • Badiana

  • Safety

    Star anise itself has a long history of being safely used for both adults and children; however, there have been cases where this has been either misidentified or cross-contaminated with Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum), which although appearing identical is highly toxic causing seizures, vomiting and inflammation of the kidneys if ingested. For this reason, it is recommended that star anise is not consumed by young children or whilst pregnant or breastfeeding. When buying star anise it is essential to buy from a reputable certified source which provides the Latin name on the packaging (1,21,22).

  • Interactions

    There are no known interactions for star anise (23,24,25)

  • Contraindications

    There are no reported contraindications for star anise.

  • Preparations

    Internally

    • As an infusion, cover to prevent the volatile oils from evaporating and escaping in the steam and allow to steep for five minutes before drinking
    • Tincture

    Externally

    • The essential oil of star anise can be used for steam inhalation or diluted in a suitable carrier oil and used topically on muscular, joint or rheumatic pain.

  • Dosage

    Star anise has no proven standard dose; however, unless prescribed otherwise by a medical herbalist, typical daily dosing guidelines are:

    • Infusion / decoction: 2–3 stars per cup of boiling water or 0.5–1 g ground seed (1,24)
    • Equivalent preparations: 3 g daily (3,10,24)

  • Plant parts used

    Fruit pod

  • Constituents

    • Phenolic organic acids: Shikimic acid, gallic acid, engemol, succinic acid
    • Flavonoids (mainly as flavonoid glycosides and flavanols): Apigenin, quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin and the more recently identified illiciumflavane acid 
    • Terpenes: Squalene, linalool
    • Lignans: Verimol A and harmandianone
    • Sterols: Sitosterol
    • Alkaloids: Piperine
    • Volatile oils: Anethole, levomenthol, eucalyptol and estragole (26,8,9)
Star anise (Illicium verum)

  • Habitat

    Star anise is thought to be indigenous to the mountains of Yunnan in Southwest China. Although understood to be native to southern China and Northeast Vietnam, it has been cultivated in these regions for over 2000 years and consequently determining whether these trees are wild or cultivated presents some difficulty. It is now cultivated throughout China, Laos, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hainan and the Philippines as well as more recently in the southeastern American states where it is grown as a crop for its value as a culinary spice (27,29,30).

  • Sustainability

    The conservation status of star anise is currently unknown as the IUCN has as yet to assess it against the Red List criteria and subsequently its status is listed as ‘Not Evaluated’. However, due to its widespread cultivation in the areas of the world where it natively grows it is not considered to be at risk. (27,31)

    Habitat loss and over-harvesting from the wild are two of the biggest threats faced by medicinal plant species. There are an increasing number of well-known herbal medicines at risk of extinction. We must, therefore, ensure that we source our medicines with sustainability in mind.

    The herb supplement industry is growing at a rapid rate and until recent years a vast majority of medicinal plant produce in global trade was of unknown origin. There are some very real and urgent issues surrounding sustainability in the herb industry. These include environmental factors that affect the medicinal viability of herbs, the safety of the habitats that they are taken from, as well as the welfare of workers in the trade.

    The botanical supply chain efforts for improved visibility (transparency and traceability) into verifiably sustainable production sites around the world is now certificated through the emergence of credible international voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take; however, their safety and efficacy can be jeopardised by quality issues. So, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputable supplier, from sources known to test their herbs to ensure there is no contamination, adulteration or substitution with incorrect plant matter, as well as ensuring that recognised marker compounds are at appropriate levels in the herbs.

    Some important quality assurances to look for are certified organic labelling, the correct scientific/botanical name, and the availability of information from the supplier about ingredient origins. A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from, what contaminants are not in the herb, and what the primary compounds are.

  • How to grow

    Star anise trees are not particularly cold-hardy although they will tolerate temperatures below freezing. If grown in the UK they are most likely to thrive when planted within the protection of a South or West facing wall in sun or dappled shade and ideally a humus rich, moist but well drained soil. In the topical regions of Southeast and East Asia, where star anise is widely grown, plants may be propagated from either seed or cuttings.

    Vigorously growing high yielding adult trees are chosen for seed stock, which is collected from the fresh fruit of these trees and planted within three days of the seed being harvested, as their germination power rapidly declines. Alternatively, the seeds may be stored for up to a year if kept wet. The young trees are planted out at about three years and require minimal attention after this time (8,27,29,30).

  • Recipe

    Star anise syrup (Illicium verum)
    Star anise syrup (Illicium verum)

    Elderberry and star anise syrup

    Combining the antiviral properties of elderberry with those of star anise makes this a useful and palatable remedy to treat the symptoms of cold and flu.

    Ingredients

    • Elderberries
    • Water
    • Sugar
    • Lemons
    • Star anise (you can also include other herbs or spices such as cinnamon, cardamom, ginger, black pepper and cloves)

    Instructions

    1. Remove elderberries from stems 
    2. Wash in cool water
    3. Place in saucepan with star anise and other chosen spices
    4. Cover with water and simmer for ½ to 1 hour
    5. Mash berries well
    6. Strain liquid using a fine sieve or muslin
    7. Measure the amount of liquid and return to saucepan
    8. For every 500 ml juice add 250 g sugar
    9. Simmer for about 30 minutes uncovered whilst stirring regularly
    10. Pour into sterilised bottles
    11. This can be taken by the teaspoon neat or added to boiling water for a hot drink

  • References

    1. Bruton-Seal J, Seal M. Kitchen medicine: Household Remedies for Common Ailments and Domestic Emergencies. Rowman & Littlefield; 2011.
    2. ABC Herbalgram website. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/healthy-ingredients/star-anise/
    3. ABC Herbalgram website. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/commission-e-monographs/monograph-approved-herbs/star-anise-seed/
    4. Chevallier A. Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants.; 2001.
    5. Ba Jiao Hui Xiang (Star Anise) in Chinese medicine. https://www.meandqi.com/herb-database/star-anise
    6. Medicosage. ILLICIUM – medicosage. Medicosage. Published February 1, 2025. https://medicosage.com/illicium/#:~:text=Illicium%2C%20also%20known%20as%20,popular%20choice%20in%20holistic%20medicine
    7. Nguyen C. 4 Amazing Star Anise Spiritual Benefits. K-Agriculture. Published October 22, 2024. https://k-agriculture.com/star-anise-spiritual-benefits/
    8. George CK. Star anise. In: Elsevier eBooks. ; 2012:487-503. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857095688.487
    9. Zou Q, Huang Y, Zhang W, Lu C, Yuan J. A Comprehensive Review of the Pharmacology, Chemistry, Traditional Uses and Quality Control of Star Anise (Illicium verum Hook. F.): An Aromatic Medicinal Plant. Molecules. 2023;28(21):7378. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28217378
    10. Perry N. Chinese star anise: Affirming traditional applications, highlighting its potent biological activities. https://dilstonphysicgarden.com/elementor-15729/
    11. A modern herbal | Anise (Star). https://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/anise041.html
    12. Wang GW, Hu WT, Huang BK, Qin LP. Illicium verum: a review on its botany, traditional use, chemistry and pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011 Jun 14;136(1):10-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.051
    13. McIntyre A. The complete Woman’s herbal: A Manual of Healing Herbs and Nutrition for Personal Wellbeing and Family Care. Gaia Books; 1994.
    14. Green J. The Male herbal: The Definitive Health Care Book for Men and Boys. Crossing Press; 2011.
    15. Wood M. The Book of Herbal Wisdom: Using Plants as Medicines. North Atlantic Books; 2017.
    16. Wren RC. Potter’s Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations.; 2019.
    17. Lawless J. The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The Complete Guide to the Use of Aromatic Oils In Aromatherapy, Herbalism, Health, and Well Being. Conari Press; 2013.
    18. Shahrajabian MH. Sun W, & Cheng Q. (2019). Chinese star anise and anise, magic herbs in traditional Chinese medicine and modern pharmaceutical science. Asian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 5(3), 162-179.
    19. Muhsinah AB, Maqbul MS, Mahnashi MH, et al. Antibacterial activity of Illicium verum essential oil against MRSA clinical isolates and determination of its phyto-chemical components. Journal of King Saud University – Science. 2021;34(2):101800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101800
    20. Li N, Gao Y, Liu L, Hu Q, Xiao L, Guan T. Exploring the pharmacological mechanisms of star anise against COVID‐19 using network pharmacology and molecular docking. Food Safety and Health. Published online January 1, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsh3.12029
    21. Detroit E. The honest to herbal truth: On-Site wound care at D-Town Harvest Fest — Earthseed Detroit. Earthseed Detroit. Published January 31, 2019. https://www.earthseeddetroit.com/blog/2016/09/the-honest-to-herbal-truth-on-site.ht ml
    22. Ize-Ludlow, D, Ragone, S, Bruck, IS, Bernstein JN, Duchowny M, & Pena BMG. (2004). Neurotoxicities in infants seen with the consumption of star anise tea. Pediatrics, 114(5), e653-e656. 
    23. NatMed Pro. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/
    24. RxList – The Internet Drug Index for prescription drug information, interactions, and side effects. RxList. Published February 24, 2001. https://www.rxlist.com/
    25. Drug Interaction Checker ← Avoid Harmful Combinations. Drugs.com. https://www.drugs.com/drug_interactions.html
    26. Patra JK, Das G, Bose S, et al. Star anise (Illicium verum): Chemical compounds, antiviral properties, and clinical relevance. Phytotherapy Research. 2020;34(6):1248-1267.
    27. Illicium verum Hook.f. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science. Plants of the World Online. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:554553-1/general-information
    28. Illicium.—Star anise. | Henriette’s Herbal Homepage. https://www.henriettes-herb.com/eclectic/sayre/illicium.html
    29. Illicium Verum Ba Jiao Hui Xian, Staranise tree PFAF Plant Database. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Illicium+Verum
    30. Star Anise – The Garden Palette. The Garden Palette. https://thegardenpalette.wordpress.com/tag/star-anise/
    31. The IUCN red list of threatened species. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=star%20anise&searchType=species

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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