Rose geranium is included in the extensive Pelargonium genus, referred to as the sweet geraniums (7). The sweet geraniums all possess astringent properties and have very fragrant foliage (8).

The flowers and leaves are edible and can be brewed as a tea or added to flavour food. Whilst the leaves and flowers can be used to make a tea or tincture, the pelargoniums are more commonly used as an essential oil (EO). Some species, and particularly rose geranium, are cultivated specifically for distillation of the volatile oil from the leaves (8). The EO has the unique geranium aroma combined with rose and touches of peppermint. 

Taken internally, rose geranium is an antidepressant, adrenal stimulant tonic, nervine relaxant, and diuretic used to treat urinary tract infections (9). It calms the nervous system during times of anxiety and tension, and provides support to the adrenal glands during periods of prolonged stress or hormonal dysregulation (9). It can be effective for both PMS and menopausal symptoms (9).

The essential oil can be applied topically for the astringent properties, used on grazes, cuts, acne, eczema, piles, varicose veins, burns, bruises, cellulite, engorged breasts, mastitis and to improve the condition of mature skin (9,10). The antiseptic properties can help prevent skin infection and to support the treatment of boils, abscesses and head lice (10). It makes an effective insect repellent and can be used as an ingredient in a natural deodorant (1,9,10). 

It is commonly used in aromatherapy for a broad range of stress-related conditions including headaches, muscle cramps, stomach ache, tension, depression, mood swings, PMS and menopausal problems (10). 

For culinary uses, the flowers and leaves can be added to salad, used to flavour desserts, or infused into vinegar, jam or honey. The leaves and flowers can be dried and used as potpourri.  

Note: EO should not be taken internally or applied directly to the skin without being diluted in a carrier oil, cream, balm or wash (11). 

The highly aromatic quality of rose geranium is due to the essential oils (EO) in the flowers and foliage. The main constituents of the EO are monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and diterpenes (12). It is the monoterpenes geraniol, linalool and citronellol which make up 50–70% of the EO, and are responsible for the fragrance (12).

The EO have significant antibacterial properties which have been demonstrated against a range of bacteria including: Staphylococcus aureus (6,13,14,15); methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (16); Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (6,14,15); Proteus mirabilis, Enterococcus faecalis (14); Klebsiella pneumonia (6); Salmonella enteritidis and Bacillus subtilis (15). In addition to the anti-bacterial properties, rose geranium EO also has antifungal action against Candida albicans (14) and Malassezia species (17), and insecticidal action (12). It should be noted that the effectiveness of the inhibitory activity against many strains of microbes has been demonstrated for 100% EO concentration. When diluted to a recommended level to minimise skin reactions and toxicity the efficacy decreases. One study showed that when the EO is diluted from 100% to 5% the efficacy against E.coli, S.aureus and Salmonella spp. drops from around 85% to 13–0% (18). This suggests that when using EO in practice at the recommended dilution, they could be considerably less effective than the laboratory research of undiluted EO’s suggests. 

Alcohol extracts (38% alcohol tincture) of fresh rose geranium leaves also have significant anti-microbial activity, which has been demonstrated against E.coli, S.aureus; Salmonella spp.; and, Aspergillus niger (18).

When used in aromatherapy the volatile oils act on receptors in the nose which triggers the limbic system and hypothalamus to release neurotransmitters (1). In the case of rose geranium oil the neurotransmitters decrease the activity of the sympathetic nervous system, and stimulates the parasympathetic system, which induces a state of relaxation which reduces stress and anxiety levels (19). 

The cool and moist energetics clear heat and inflammation (20). Rose geranium flower essence helps to lift the spirits and is suited to those who feel down and depressed and need to bring joy and happiness back into their life (10). It helps with the energy, clarity, and motivation to get plans and projects organised and into action (10).

The scented geranium species came from the Cape of South Africa to England in the mid-17th century, where the aromatic and decorative foliage was a popular houseplant to scent the room (7,21). In the early 19th century the perfume industry began capturing the scent (21). Geranium oil is now widely used in perfumes and is a popular essential oil (7). 

In the early 20th century the astringent properties of the pelargoniums were valuable in the treatment of dysentery and for ulceration of the stomach and small intestine (8). Other folk uses include treatment of wounds, fever, haemorrhoids, gonorrhoea, inflammation and diarrhoea (22). 

Before the production of artificial food flavourings the Victorians used scented geranium leaves to flavour their cakes (7). The leaves add a distinctive flavour, better not eaten, being removed after the cooking process (7). The leaves would be used to line the bottom of the baking tin before pouring in the cake mix and cooking as normal. The leaves are then removed once the cake has cooled (7).

The astringent and drying actions of rose geranium make it suited to conditions of excess fluid such as in the digestive tract and various skin conditions. The volatile oils can both stimulate and calm the digestive system, depending on the individual. The aromatic qualities of the volatile oils can support the nervous system both physically and emotionally. 

Digestive system

The astringent action makes rose geranium suits to relieving conditions with loose stools and diarrhoea (20). The high concentration of volatile oils provides a carminative action to the digestive system, used when there is bloating, gas, intestinal spasms and pain (2). An infusion of the leaves will soothe a sore throat when drunk, or can be left to cool and used as a gargle (20,23). Regarding oral health, the essential oil can be diluted and used as a mouthwash for ulcers, infections, gingival bleeding, candida growth, halitosis, toothache, and to reduce anxiety when visiting the dentist (24). 

Nervous system

Rose geranium is an uplifting relaxant with a nourishing and restorative action that makes it suited to anxiety, depression, stress and emotional tension (20). When used in aromatherapy, inhalation of rose geranium essential oil (EO) can be used as a nerve tonic to ease stress, tension and anxiety (19). Inhalation of rose geranium EO has been shown to reduce stress in women during childbirth (25); reduce fatigue in sleep-deprived nurses (26); and reduce anxiety and stress in patients with chronic back pain (27).

Pain relief

When used in aromatherapy, the inhalation of rose geranium EO can reduce chronic pain and the associated psychological distress, including stress and anxiety (27). A clinical trial has demonstrated the application of rose geranium EO to be effective at relieving post-herpetic neuralgia in patients with shingles (28). 

Rose geranium EO has strong anti-inflammatory activity and topical application can suppress inflammatory symptoms such as redness, swelling, oedema and pain (29). This makes it a useful addition to topical treatments for painful inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, tendonitis, and sprains (24, 29). A decrease in inflammation can reduce the level of joint pain and increase mobility in the affected joints (24).

When used as a nasal spray, rose geranium has been shown to reduce symptoms of nasal vestibulitis in patients undergoing cancer-directed therapies (30). The spray improved symptoms of dryness, pain, bleeding, and soreness (30). 

Endocrine system

The uplifting and relaxing actions are applicable to emotional tension related to hormonal states such as menopause and PMS (20). The astringent action suits rose geranium to excessive menstrual bleeding and damp conditions of leukorrhea and thrush (10). Rose geranium is also an adrenal tonic and aphrodisiac (20), which can balance the emotions, making it a supportive herb during the menopausal transition (11). A combination with lady’s mantle, raspberry leaf, white deadnettle, calendula and rose petals makes an effective tea blend for all of these female-conditions. 

Skin / topical

On herbal medicine, herbs are often taken internally in order to have a therapeutic effect on skin conditions. The skin conditions referred to here are where rose geranium can be used externally as a topical treatment. The combination of the anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory and astringent actions make rose geranium useful in the treatment of acne, skin infections, wounds, dermatitis, eczema, ringworm, head lice, and fungal infections (10). 

As a hydrosol or water extract rose geranium can be used to astringe, dry, and calm damp and irritated skin conditions such as acne, eczema, grazes, cuts, burns (10,20). 

The essential oil can be applied to fungal infections, such as those caused by Malassezia fungi. Malassezia species are part the microbiological flora of human skin but can cause skin conditions such as pityriasis versicolor, seborrheic dermatitis, folliculitis, otitis externa, atopic dermatitis and even  sepsis (17). Laboratory research has shown antifungal activity of rose geranium essential oil to be effective against Malassezia species isolated from patients with pityriasis versicolor (17). This suggests it would be effective to be included in a topical skin treatment for such conditions, though this has not been investigated through any clinical trials. 

Pessaries are a commonly used herbal treatment for vaginal thrush, combining herbal oils, cocoa butter and beeswax. The antifungal activity and astringent action of rose geranium oil makes this an effective ingredient in herbal pessaries for vaginal thrush. A laboratory study has tested the efficacy of rose geranium EO against vaginal candidiasis and vaginal inflammation in response to candida growth (31). In this mouse model the vaginal application of rose geranium EO successfully suppressed candida cell growth, and when combined with vaginal washing protected against local inflammation (31).

A cream or balm with added rose geranium essential oil can be applied to piles (haemorrhoids), varicose veins, cellulite, engorged breasts, and mastitis (9,10). 

As part of a skin-care routine rose geranium oil is useful for toning and cleansing the skin due to the astringent and antiseptic properties (6). It is particularly effective on an oily complexion and to improve the condition of mature skin (22). During pregnancy, a cream containing rose geranium can help to prevent the development and severity of stretch-marks (32).

Either the EO or an alcohol extract can be applied to the skin as an effective insect repellent, including protection against mosquitoes (33). 

Nervous system / pain

A double-blind, cross over design clinical trial investigated the topic use of rose geranium essential oil (EO) in twenty-four patients with postherpetic neuralgia, following a shingles infection (28). A single topical application of either: 100% EO;  50% EO; 10% EO; or placebo was applied and pain measured for one hour. Pain reduced after application in all conditions, in a dose dependent manner, with the 100% EO being twice as effective as the 50% concentration. The only significant difference was the pain reduction when comparing 100% EO to the placebo. This suggests that a single application of 100% rose geranium EO can be effective at reducing post-herpetic neuralgia, although a burning sensation and skin rash did occur in three participants (28).

A placebo-controlled trial employed 100 women to investigate the use of aromatherapy during labour (25). Rose geranium EO was applied to the clothing of 50 women during labour, and compared to 50 women given a distilled water placebo. There was a significant decrease in anxiety in both groups, with a greater decrease in the intervention group. There was a significantly greater decrease in blood pressure in the intervention group. The authors recommended aromatherapy with geranium EO as an effective, non-invasive way to reduce anxiety during labour and childbirth. However, this should be interpreted with caution, as a small reduction in anxiety was also seen in the placebo group, and there was no significant difference between the two groups (25).

A recent clinical trial demonstrated the clinical effectiveness of rose geranium EO aromatherapy in 57 patients with chronic pain from lumbar spinal stenosis and associated symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression (27). The study found that inhalation of rose geranium EO was effective in lowering perceived pain, anxiety, and stress in the patients with moderate to severe pain (27). 

Karimi et al. (2024) conducted a double‐blind, randomised, controlled clinical trial to investigate the effectiveness of aromatherapy with rose geranium EO on fatigue and sleep quality of 84 nurses working in intensive care units during the Covid‐19 pandemic (26). There was no effect on sleep scores, however fatigue was significantly reduced immediately after inhalation, and 60 minutes later. (26)

Insect repellent

A small study of three male participants demonstrated that an alcohol extract of rose geranium was more effective than a placebo control, against mosquito bites for three hours after application (33). 

Skin

A cream containing a combination of Pelargonium graveolens (rose geranium), calendula, chamomile, and cocoa butter was evaluated for the prevention of stretch marks (striae gravidarum) in 54 women during pregnancy (32). The triple-blind, randomised clinical trial split the women into two groups: herbal cream and placebo moisturizing cream. The cream was applied twice daily, three days per week from 14–16 to 27–30 weeks of gestation. At the gestational weeks 38–40, the incidence and severity of striae on the abdominal skin was significantly lower (p<0.0001) in the herbal treatment group. The prevalence of striae gravidarum was 43% and 88% for the herbal and placebo groups, respectively (32).

The name Pelargonium derives from the Latin word pelargos, meaning ‘a stork’, due the seed pod resembling a storks bill (7).

This species is native to the African continent with a range from Zimbabwe to Cape Province, growing primarily in the subtropical biome (36). It was introduced to Europe in 1690 and is now widespread through many temperate countries, where it is grown as a perennial (7,22). Pelargoniums are widely cultivated across the world for essential oil manufacture, predominantly in Egypt, Russia and China (22).

• Not currently listed on CITES list of endangered species (37)
• Not reported on International Union for Conservation of Nature (38)
• Not reported on U.S. Endangered Species act (39)
• Not listed on United Plant Savers list of At-Risk species (40)

Habitat loss and over-harvesting from the wild are two of the biggest threats faced by medicinal plant species. There are an increasing number of well-known herbal medicines at risk of extinction. We must, therefore, ensure that we source our medicines with sustainability in mind.

The herb supplement industry is growing at a rapid rate and until recent years a vast majority of medicinal plant produce in global trade was of unknown origin. There are some very real and urgent issues surrounding sustainability in the herb industry. These include environmental factors that affect the medicinal viability of herbs, the safety of the habitats that they are taken from, as well as the welfare of workers in the trade.

The botanical supply chain efforts for improved visibility (transparency and traceability) into verifiably sustainable production sites around the world is now certificated through the emergence of credible international voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). 

Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

Herbal medicines are often very safe to take, however, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputed supplier. Sometimes herbs bought from unreputable sources are contaminated, adulterated or substituted with incorrect plant matter. Some important markers for quality to look for would be to look for certified organic labelling, ensuring that the correct scientific/botanical name is used and that suppliers can provide information about the source of ingredients used in the product. A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from. There is more space for contamination and adulteration when the supply chain is unknown. There are many cultivars sold under the name Pelargonium graveolens or rose geranium, which are hybrids with varying scents. The true P. graveolens will have five lobed leaf dissections, where the cultivar has about up to ten (41). Geranium oils are commonly used as an adulterant for the more expensive rose oils (12,21).

Rose geranium can be grown from seed in spring, however propagation from softwood cuttings is more reliable (7). In the summer take cuttings (10–15cm) and remove the lower leaves with a sharp knife and insert into seed compost (7). The cutting should root in 2–3 weeks and can be transferred into larger pots or planted out in a warm spot with well-drained soil (7). In a colder climate, such as the UK, the plants will require protection over the winter or brought into a greenhouse or conservatory (41). Geraniums are very tolerant of pruning and can be cut back in autumn to encourage lots of fresh growth in the spring (41). Harvest the leaves during the spring and summer for use fresh or dried (7).

Rose geranium sorbet

Ingredients

• 12 rose geranium leaves (plus four for decoration)
• 75 g caster sugar
• 300 ml water
• Juice of one lemon
• One egg white

Method

Place the sugar and water in a saucepan and boil until the sugar dissolves and remove from the heat. Submerge the 12 leaves into the sugar water in the pan cover and leave for 20 minutes. For a stronger flavour add more leaves and bring back to the boil before leaving to cool. Strain the syrup, add the lemon juice and place in the freezer until semi frozen (45–60 minutes). Fold in the beaten egg white and put back in the freezer for a further 45 minutes. To serve, scoop into individual glasses and decorate with geranium leaves. 

Recipe from: Jekka’s Complete Herb Book – Jekka McVicar (2009)

1. 1. Ali B, Al-Wabel NA, Shams S, Ahamad A, Khan SA, Anwar F. Essential oils used in aromatherapy: a systemic review. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2015;5(8):601-11.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apjtb.2015.05.007 
   2. Bone K and Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2013.
   3. Ganora, L. Herbal Constituents: Foundations of Phytochemistry. Herbalchem Press; 2009.
   4. Fayoumi L, Khalil M, Ghareeb D, Eldakdouki, MH. Chemical Composition and Therapeutic Activity of Lebanese Rose Geranium (Pelargonium Hybrid) Extracts. Farmacia. 2022;1;70(3). https://doi.org/10.31925/farmacia.2022.3.13  
   5. Boukhris, M., Simmonds, M.S.J., Sayadi, S. and Bouaziz, M. Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Polar Extracts and Essential Oil of Rose-scented Geranium, Pelargonium graveolens. Phytotherapy Research. 2013; 27: 1206-1213. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.4853
   6. Pradeepa M, Kalidas V, Geetha N. Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis and bactericidal activity of Pelargonium graveolens L’Her. International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics. 2016;8(3):7-11. 
   7. McVicar, J. Jekka’s Complete Herb Book. Kyle Cathie Limited; 2009.
   8. Grieve M, Leyel CF, Marshall M. A Modern Herbal. the Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-Lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses. Dover Publications; 1982. 
   9. American Botanical Council. Sweet-scented Geranium. 2023. Accessed May 24, 2024. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/herbclip/herbclip-news/2016/rose-geranium-essential-oil/
   10. McIntyre, A. Flower Power. Henry Holt; 1996.
   11. Curtis S, Thomas P, Johnson F. Neal’s Yard Remedies Essential Oils: Restore, Rebalance, Revitalize, Feel the Benefits, Enhance Natural Beauty, Create Blends. Dorling Kindersley Ltd; 2016.
   12. Narnoliya LK, Jadaun JS, Singh SP. The phytochemical composition, biological effects and biotechnological approaches to the production of high-value essential oil from geranium. Essential Oil Research: Trends in Biosynthesis, Analytics, Industrial Applications and Biotechnological Production. 2019:327-52. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16546-8_12 
   13. Bigos M, Wasiela M, Kalemba D, Sienkiewicz M. Antimicrobial activity of geranium oil against clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Molecules. 2012;17(9):10276-91. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules170910276 
   14. Carmen G, Hancu G. Antimicrobial and antifungal activity of Pelargonium roseum essential oils. Advanced pharmaceutical bulletin. 2014;4(Suppl 2):511. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4312398/ 
   15. Ghannadi, A., Bagherinejad, M., Abedi, D., Jalali, M., Absalan, B., & Sadeghi, N. (2012). Antibacterial activity and composition of essential oils from Pelargonium graveolens L’Her and Vitex agnus-castus L. Iranian journal of microbiology, 4(4), 171–176. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3507305/ 
   16. Edwards-Jones V, Buck R, Shawcross SG, Dawson MM, Dunn K. The effect of essential oils on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus using a dressing model. Burns. 2004;30(8):772-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2004.06.006 
   17. Naeini AR, Nazeri M, Shokri H. Antifungal activity of Zataria multiflora, Pelargonium graveolens and Cuminum cyminum essential oils towards three species of Malassezia isolated from patients with pityriasis versicolor. Journal de mycologie médicale. 2011;1;21(2):87-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mycmed.2011.01.004
   18. Androutsopoulou C, Christopoulou SD, Hahalis P, Kotsalou C, Lamari FN, Vantarakis A. Evaluation of Essential Oils and Extracts of Rose Geranium and Rose Petals as Natural Preservatives in Terms of Toxicity, Antimicrobial, and Antiviral Activity. Pathogens. 2021; 10(4):494. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040494 
   19. Hur MH, Song JA, Lee J, Lee MS. Aromatherapy for stress reduction in healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Maturitas. 2014;79(4):362-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.08.006
   20. Stableford, A. The Handbook of Constitutional and Energetic Herbal Medicine. Aeon; 2020.  
   21. Remington, JP and Wood, HC (1918) The Dispensary of the United States of America. Reprinted on Henritttas Herbpages. Accessed June 6, 2024. https://www.henriettes-herb.com/eclectic/usdisp/pelargonium.html 
   22. American Botanical Council. Rose Geranium Essential Oil. 2016. Accessed May 24, 2024. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/healthy-ingredients/sweet-scented-geranium/ 
   23. Asgarpanah J, & Ramezanloo F. An overview on phytopharmacology of Pelargonium graveolens L. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 2015; 14(4):558-563. http://nopr.niscpr.res.in/handle/123456789/33014
   24. Galea C. Perspectives on the use of geranium essential oil: Pelargonium graveolens and pelargonium roseum, in dental medicine. Romanian Journal of Medical and Dental Education. 2023 Mar;12(2). https://journal.adre.ro/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/PERSPECTIVES-ON-THE-USE-OF-GERANIUM-ESSENTIAL-OIL-PELARGONIUM-GRAVEOLENS-AND-PELARGONIUM-ROSEUM.pdf 
   25. Fakari FR, Tabatabaeichehr M, Kamali H, Fakari FR, Naseri M. Effect of inhalation of aroma of geranium essence on anxiety and physiological parameters during first stage of labor in nulliparous women: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Caring Science. 2015;4(2):135-141. doi: 10.15171/jcs.2015.014
   26. Karimi N, Hasanvand S, Beiranvand A, Gholami M, Birjandi M. The effect of Aromatherapy with Pelargonium graveolens (P. graveolens) on the fatigue and sleep quality of critical care nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic: A randomized controlled trial. Explore. 2024 Jan 1;20(1):82-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2023.06.006 
   27. Seo E, Cho Y, Lee JM, Seol GH. Inhalation of Pelargonium graveolens Essential Oil Alleviates Pain and Related Anxiety and Stress in Patients with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis and Moderate to Severe Pain. Pharmaceuticals. 2023;19;17(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17010001 
   28. Greenway FL, Frome BM, Engels TM, McLellan A. Temporary relief of postherpetic neuralgia pain with topical geranium oil. American Journal of Medicine. 2003;115(7):586-587. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(03)00434-0 
   29. Boukhatem MN, Kameli A, Ferhat MA, Saidi F, Mekarnia M. Rose geranium essential oil as a source of new and safe anti-inflammatory drugs. Libyan Journal of Medicine. 2013;8(1):22520. doi:10.3402/ljm.v8i0.22520 
   30. Cathcart-Rake EJ, Smith D, Zahrieh D, Loprinzi CL. Rose geranium in sesame oil nasal spray: a treatment for nasal vestibulitis?. BMJ supportive & palliative care. 2020 Dec 1;10(4):411-3. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2018.36.15_suppl.e22166  
   31. Maruyama N, Takizawa T, Ishibashi H, Hisajima T, Inouye S, Yamaguchi H, Abe S. Protective activity of geranium oil and its component, geraniol, in combination with vaginal washing against vaginal candidiasis in mice. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2008;1;31(8):1501-6. https://doi.org/10.1248/bpb.31.1501 
   32. Alirezaei S, Yazdanpanah MJ, Esmaeili H, Khadem N, Zabolinejad N, Sadeghi F, Roudsari RL. The Effect of a Combined Topical Herbal Cream on the Incidence and Severity of Striae Gravidarum in Primiparous Women: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Current Women’s Health Reviews. 2023;1;19(2):85-91. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573404818666220518163029 
   33. Govere J, Durrheim DN, Du Toit N, Hunt RH, Coetzee M. Local plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis, in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. The Central African Journal of Medicine. 2000 Aug 1;46(8):213-6. PMID: 11317593. 
   34. CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. Accessdata.fda.gov. Accessed: 04 June 2024. Available at: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=182.20 
   35. Rose Geranium Oil. NatMed Pro. Accessed June 4, 2024. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/databases/food,-herbs-supplements/professional.aspx?productid=153 
   36. Royal Botanical Gardens Kew (RBGK). Pelargonium graveolens L’Hér. Plants of the Word Online (POWO). Accessed May 21, 2024. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:376259-1  
   37. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Accessed June 4, 2024. https://cites.org/eng 
   38. IUCN red list of threatened species: Pelargonium. IUCN. Accessed June 4, 2024.  https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=105604&searchType=species
   39. NatureServe explorer 2.0. Natureserve.org. Accessed June 4, 2024. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.131092/Pelargonium_capitatum 
   40. UpS list of herbs & analogs. United Plant Savers. Published May 14, 2021. Accessed June 4, 2024. https://unitedplantsavers.org/ups-list-of-herbs-analogs/ 
   41. PFAF (2024). Pelargonium graveolens L’Her, Rose Geranium, Sweet scented geranium PFAF Plant Database. Accessed June 3, 2024. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Pelargonium+graveolens