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Pleurisy root is a superb herb for supporting conditions of the lungs

Pleurisy root

Asclepias tuberosa

Apocynaceae

The name indicates one of the most important applications, for pleurisy, as well as being valuable for many other lung conditions.

Sustainability Status

Sustainability status

At risk from overharvesting and habitat loss. Read more about our sustainability guide.

Key benefits
  • Lower respiratory tract ailments
  • Lung support
  • Digestive support
  • Fever

  • How does it feel?

    The tincture smells sweet and slightly aromatic. The aromatic notes are from the volatile oils and terpenes which stimulate movement through the digestive tract and mucus from the lungs (1). The taste is sharp, sour and then bitter, with a little sweetness that leaves the mouth feeling watery. The overall impression is bitter, pungent, sweet and cool (1,2,3). The bitter taste is from the terpenes and bitter principles, which stimulate  digestion by causing secretions into the gastro-intestinal tract (1). The bitterness is slightly acrid, indicating a relaxing, antispasmodic action (1,4).

    The sourness relates to the flavonoids, which have an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cooling action (4). The slight sweetness indicates a moistening and nourishing quality, which is common in roots, due to the polysaccharides (4). The feeling is one of relaxation through the body, and mucus moving from the lungs to the throat to be easily cleared. This brings a clarity to the lungs, an expansive feeling of being able to breathe more deeply. This feeling quickly spreads outwards, up into the head to enhance clarity and clear mental fog, and down into the stomach to ease tension. The overall sensation is one of expansion and clarity.

    Pleurisy root flower (Asclepias tuberosa)
    Pleurisy root (Asclepias tuberosa)
    Pleurisy root closed flowers (Asclepias tuberosa)

  • What can I use it for?

    As indicated by the name, pleurisy root is one of the best remedies for pleurisy (5). Pleurisy is the inflammation of the membranes surrounding the lungs (pleura) caused by viral or bacterial infection. The pleura rub together and cause sharp chest pain, exacerbated by movement or coughing. Pleurisy root is, however, a valuable remedy for most ailments of the lungs as it will help expectoration of mucus, soothe inflammation and irritation, and act as a tonic for lung tissues (6). It is a useful herb for pleurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia and influenza. The antispasmodic action is helpful in asthma, emphysema and dry, spasmodic coughs (7).

    The diaphoretic action is particularly useful to help bring down a fever, by promoting blood flow to the skin and aiding heat loss via sweating (7). 

    The antispasmodic and carminative actions apply to the digestive system, to relieve colic, trapped wind, flatulence and soothing any irritation to the gut lining that causes indigestion (7).

  • Into the heart of pleurisy root

    Pleurisy root flowerhead (Asclepias tuberosa)
    Pleurisy root flowerhead (Asclepias tuberosa)

    Pleurisy root is cooling and moistening, suited to hot and dry ailments, particularly conditions in the lungs (1,5). The cooling effect refers to the release of excess heat from the body, via an increase in blood flow to the skin and an opening of the pores. The moistening occurs by removing any blockages to the membrane surfaces, such as a build-up of thick mucus, which allows a rebalancing of the fluids lubricating the membranes. 

    Pleurisy root is, therefore, suited to tissue states which are excited, dry, atrophic, and constricted (1). The excited tissue state is overactive and is characterised by nervous excitement, restlessness, and an excess of heat being generated by the tissue (1). Excess heat can also arise from constriction and tension restricting the flow of fluids in the body, and both tension and heat contribute to the dry state (4). Excited and constricted tissue states can stem from excessive sympathetic stimulation, and both physically and energetically the kidneys are the centre of sympathetic stimulation (4). Since pleurisy root shifts the balance of fluids to the skin and lungs, away from the kidneys, it is beneficial for sympathetic excess, indirectly calming the nervous system (1,3). Dry tissues such as skin, hair and nails are also moisturised and nourished by the increased blood flow.

  • Traditional uses

    Pleurisy root (Asclepias tuberosa)
    Pleurisy root (Asclepias tuberosa)

    Pleurisy root was one of the most common indigenous medicines in North America (8). Native Americans used pleurisy root extensively as medicine for the heart and especially the lungs (5). It was employed for dysentery, dropsy (oedema) and asthma, and as an emetic in large doses (9). The powder was used externally for venereal diseases, fungous ulcers, piles and the bite of rattlesnakes (9). The fibres of the stem were used to make strings for bows, and the silk for making wicks for candles (9).

    It was an official medicine of the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820–1905, recommended for pleurisy, fever, asthma, consumption (tuberculosis), bronchitis pneumonia, and other respiratory infections (7,10). It was universally classified in the nineteenth century literature as a relaxing diaphoretic, which opens the pores of the pleura and skin to decongest fluids and release heat (1). 

    In 1828, pleurisy root was described as a sudorific (diaphoretic), expectorant, diuretic, laxative, carminative and antispasmodic (9). It was a valuable and popular remedy to relieve breathing difficulty, dyspnoea and chest pains in pleuritic patients, and promote suppressed expectoration (9). It was given for typhus fever, pneumonia, asthma, rheumatism, syphilis, and even for worms, hysteria, menorrhagia, dysentery and to restore the tone of the stomach and digestive powers (9).

    In 1898, it was listed in Kings American Dispensary as being diaphoretic, diuretic, laxative, tonic, carminative, expectorant, and antispasmodic, and considered to be a “par excellence, diaphoretic of the Eclectic materia medica” (11). Felter stated “pleurisy root has a deservedly good reputation in respiratory diseases, and as its popular name indicates, is of much value in treating pleuritis [pleurisy]”. The efficacy in pleurisy and pleuro-pneumonia was known to be due to its action on the serous membranes (11). The anodyne action was harnessed to reduce the pleural pain in pleurisy (pleurodynia), as well as in intercostal neuralgia, rheumatism, and pericardial pains (11).

    For asthma, it was recommended in five-drop doses, and as a remedy for a dry, constricted cough when combined with Indian tobacco (Lobelia inflata) (11). For acute nasal catarrh it was recommended in combination with eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis) and chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) (11). It was also used for diarrhoea, dysentery, colic, headaches, typhoid and eczema (10). 

    In larger doses it was used as an emetic (induces vomiting) and purgative (strongly laxative) (6), which aligns with the modern safety warning that excessive doses can cause vomiting and diarrhoea. 

    Externally it was used as a poultice for bruises, swelling, wounds and rheumatism (10,12).

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Pleurisy root plants (Asclepias tuberosa)
    Pleurisy root plants (Asclepias tuberosa)

    Respiratory

    The anti-inflammatory, expectorant, antiviral, antimicrobial, diaphoretic and antispasmodic actions make pleurisy root suited to a whole range of respiratory and lung conditions. However, it is specific for lower respiratory tract infections, where the combined actions will reduce inflammation, infection, and lung pain in pleurisy, bronchitis, laryngitis, pneumonia, and tuberculosis (7,13).  

    As the name suggests, pleurisy root is highly valued for the treatment of pleurisy, due to the antispasmodic, anodyne and diaphoretic actions (14). It has an action on the serous membranes to help reabsorb the pleural effusion to rebalance the moisture of the mucous surfaces (7,11). Pleurisy root brings moisture to the delicate membranes by opening pores, and decongesting mucus that has become stuck and stagnant (1). The anodyne, anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic actions reduce the pleural pain, pericardial pains, and relieve the pleuritic cough (7,11). 

    One of the primary actions is diaphoresis, which relaxes the peripheral capillaries and increases sweating to help remove heat from the body (5). The diaphoretic, febrifuge and antimicrobial actions are suited to lung problems with associated fever such as pleurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza and other respiratory infections (10). To enhance the diaphoretic action, pleurisy root combines well with ginger, lime blossom or yarrow (13). 

    Pleurisy root is particularly suited to dry ailments of the lungs where the antispasmodic action is helpful when treating asthma, emphysema, pertussis (whooping cough) and dry cough (2,5,8). 

    Digestion

    Pleurisy root has both antispasmodic and carminative actions, which can relieve colic, trapped wind, flatulence and soothe an irritated gut lining (7). Gastric symptoms are often caused by stress on the nervous system, in such cases, pleurisy root can help with dyspepsia, diarrhoea, colic and indigestion (1). It will help to restore function to the gastrointestinal system, liver and kidneys (3). Pleurisy root is also a remedy for headaches which originate from gastric disturbance (1). 

    Circulation

    The vasodilatory action on the arteries brings blood to the peripheral circulation, which reduces arterial tension and blood pressure, as well as promoting heat loss through the skin to reduce a fever (7). It can also be used as part of a treatment for pericarditis and with pericardial pains, and to bring down a rapid pulse (7). The stimulation of blood flow shifts the balance of fluids in the body towards the lungs and skin, and away from the kidneys (1). This has broad beneficial effects for those who suffer excessive urination, compromised respiratory function and dry skin (1). 

    Skin

    The promotion of blood flow to the skin can be effective in bringing out a rash in eruptive diseases such as measles and chickenpox, as well as supporting any fever in these cases (7). The stimulation of blood to the skin can also benefit those with dry skin, and can be used in tonic formulas to improve the health of skin and hair (1). 

  • Research

    There is a lack of clinical research exploring the effects of pleurisy root in human trials. Pleurisy root was one of the most important traditional medicines for both physicians and at home remedies, however is less often used in modern herbal medicine (1). Much of the evidence for use has roots in indigenous practices and comes from early pharmacopoeias, as opposed to modern-day research.

  • Did you know?

    Monarch butterflies feed on the leaf and flowers of this plant, making the butterfly toxic to predators (12). Birds that eat the butterfly will experience the emetic effects of the plant, discouraging them from feeding on the butterfly in future (12).

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    It is a perennial which grows to between 30 cm and one metre (1.5–2.5 feet), with stout, hairy stems (10). The leaves are dark green, lanceolate-oblong in a slight spinal, and around 10 cm long (10). The bright orange flowers are in clusters of umbels on the upper leaf axils (10). The seeds are contained in long pods within a silky pappus (10).

  • Common names

    • Butterfly milkweed
    • Orange butterfly weed
    • Orange milkweed
    • Tuberosa milkweed
    • Hello yellow
    • Canada root
    • Colic root
    • Swallow-wort
    • Wind root
    • Flux root
    • Tuber root
    • Indian paintbrush

  • Safety

    Pleurisy root is safe to consume, although excessive doses may cause vomiting and diarrhoea (5,10).

  • Interactions

    Avoid with cardiac glycosides such as digoxin due to the potential for a heart stimulating effect of the glycoside constituents (2,15). Theoretically, large doses may interact with hormone drug therapies (15). This is based on in vivo data from animal studies where a low dose extracts exhibited estrogenic effects and caused uterine contractions (16).

  • Contraindications

    Pleurisy root should be avoided in large doses or only taken under the guidance of a medical herbalist in cases of hiatus hernia, oesophageal varices, stomach ulcer or peptic ulcer, due to the possible emetic action (15). 

    Avoid in pregnancy due to the potential emetic effects, the uterine stimulant action, and potential estrogenic activity (15). Only consume when breast-feeding under the guidance of a medical practitioner (15). You can find qualified medical herbal professionals on our page  Where to find a herbalist.

  • Preparations

    Pleurisy root can be taken as a tincture, tea, capsules or a powder. The dried root taken as a tea has a very strong, bitter taste, making it preferable to take as a tincture or capsule.

  • Dosage

    • Cold infusion: 25–100 ml, three times a day (5)
    • Decoction: 1-–4 g dried root per day as a decoction (10)
    • Tincture: 1–5ml, three times per day, 1:5, 45–50% (5,10,14), up to 20 ml per week (8)
    • FE (1:1 extract): 1–4 ml, three times per day (10,16)

  • Plant parts used

    Root

  • Constituents

    • Cardiac glycosides: Cardenolides (asclepiadin, afroside, asclepin), adrostane, ascandroside, pregnane glycosides (2,10,16)
    • Flavonoids: Lutin, kaempferol, quercetin, rutin (10)
    • Tannins (2)
    • Triterpenes: Amyrin, lupeol, friedelin, viburnitol (10,16)
    • Essential oil (10)
    • Resins (2)
Pleurisy root illustration (Asclepias tuberosa)

  • Habitat

    Pleurisy root is native to south east Canada, and through most states in North America, and Mexico and is widely cultivated across this range (17,18). 

    Pleurisy root appears in a range of habitats including tallgrass, prairies, dry woods, sandy soils, roadsides and waste places (17). 

  • Sustainability

    Pleurisy root is reported as ‘secure’ by Nature Serve since it is relatively common and well distributed across North America, and does not appear on the U.S. Endangered Species Act (17). It should be noted that there is a wide range of decline since it is very common in parts of North America but in severe decline in others. It is quite common in natural settings such as roadsides and old fields, but habitat destruction and wild harvesting present ongoing threats to this species (17). Pleurisy root has not been listed on CITES, IUCN, or on the Red Data List of Great Britain (19, 20, 21). However, pleurisy root does appear on the United Plant Savers ‘at risk’ list and should be used in cultivated forms where possible and wild harvesting should be very limited and carefully monitored (22).

    Habitat loss and over-harvesting from the wild are two of the biggest threats faced by medicinal plant species. There are an increasing number of well-known herbal medicines at risk of extinction. We must, therefore, ensure that we source our medicines with sustainability in mind.

    The herb supplement industry is growing at a rapid rate and until recent years a vast majority of medicinal plant produce in global trade was of unknown origin. There are some very real and urgent issues surrounding sustainability in the herb industry. These include environmental factors that affect the medicinal viability of herbs, the safety of the habitats that they are taken from, as well as the welfare of workers in the trade.

    The botanical supply chain efforts for improved visibility (transparency and traceability) into verifiably sustainable production sites around the world is now certificated through the emergence of credible international voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality and safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take, however, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputed supplier. Sometimes herbs bought from disreputable sources are contaminated, adulterated or substituted with incorrect plant matter.

    Some important markers for quality to look for would be to look for certified organic labelling, ensuring that the correct scientific/botanical name is used and that suppliers can provide information about the source of ingredients used in the product.

    A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from. There is more space for contamination and adulteration when the supply chain is unknown.

  • How to grow

    Pleurisy root can be grown from seed in a sunny area in peaty soil, and is frost resistant but not drought tolerant (10). In the UK it will be hardy through the winter as the plant can withstand temperatures down to minus 10 degrees Celsius (23). Seeds are best sown in a greenhouse late autumn or early winter, or in the spring after 2–3 weeks of cold stratification (24). Plant into individual pots in early summer and return to the greenhouse for the first winter (24). The root is generally harvested after the second year of growth during the winter when the plant is dormant (25). 

  • References

    1. Wood M. The Earthwise Herbal Volume 2: A Complete Guide to New World Medicinal Plants. North Atlantic Books; 2008.
    2. McIntyre A, Boudin M. Dispensing with Tradition: A Practitioner’s Guide to Using Indian and Western Herbs the Ayurvedic Way. Anne McIntyre & Michelle Boudin; 2012.
    3. Stableford, A. The Handbook of Constitutional and Energetic Herbal Medicine. Aeon; 2020.
    4. Maier K. Energetic Herbalism: A Guide to Sacred Plant Traditions Integrating Elements of Vitalism, Ayurveda, and Chinese Medicine. Chelsea Green Publishing; 2021.
    5. Easley T, Horne S. The Modern Herbal Dispensatory: A Medicine-Making Guide. North Atlantic Books; 2016.
    6. Grieve M, Leyel CF, Marshall M. A Modern Herbal. the Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-Lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses. Dover Publications; 1982. 
    7. McIntyre, A. The Complete Herbal Tutor: The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine. Aeon Books, 2019.
    8. Thomsen M. The Phytotherapy Desk Reference: 6th Edition. 6th ed. Aeon Books; 2022.
    9. Rafinesque, C. S. Medical Flora, Manual of the Medical Botany of the United States of North America, 1828. Reprinted on Henritttas Herbpages. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.henriettes-herb.com/eclectic/rafinesque/asclepias.html 
    10. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon Books; 2018. 
    11. Felter H. W, Lloyd J. U. Kings American Dispensary 18th Edit, 1898. Reprinted on Henritttas Herbpages. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.henriettes-herb.com/eclectic/kings/asclepias-tube.html
    12. Mars, B. The Desktop Guide to Herbal Medicine. Basic Health Publications Inc; 2007.
    13. Bone K and Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2013.
    14. Hoffmann D. Medicinal Herbalism, The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healing Arts Press; 2003.
    15. Brinker, FJ. Herbal Contraindications & Drug Interactions: Plus Herbal Adjuncts with Medicines. Eclectic Medical Publications, 2010.
    16. Barnes, J., Anderson, L.A. and Phillipson, J.D. Herbal medicines: a guide for healthcare professionals: Third Edition. Pharmaceutical press; 2007.
    17. NatureServe explorer 2.0. Natureserve.org. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.129775/Asclepias_tuberosa
    18. Royal Botanical Gardens Kew (RBGK). Asclepias L. Plants of the Word Online (POWO). Accessed July 15, 2024. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:94704-1/general-information#descriptions
    19. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Accessed July 15, 2024. https://cites.org/eng 
    20. IUCN red list of threatened species. IUCN. May 27, 2019. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=Asclepias%20Tuberosa&searchType=species
    21. Cheffings C, Farrell L, Dines T et al. The Vascular Plant Red Data List for Great Britain. Species Status No. 7. JNCC. Published 2005. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://hub.jncc.gov.uk/assets/cc1e96f8-b105-4dd0-bd87-4a4f60449907
    22. UpS list of herbs & analogs. United Plant Savers. Published May 14, 2021. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://unitedplantsavers.org/ups-list-of-herbs-analogs/ 
    23. Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). Asclepias tuberosa. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/43609/asclepias-tuberosa/details 
    24. PFAF. Asclepias tuberosa. Plants For A Future: Plant Database. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Asclepias+tuberosa 
    25. Charles, D. Monograph: Asclepias tuberosa. Journal of the American Herbalists Guild. 2007 Mar;7(2).

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion.They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface.One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body.Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold..
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid.Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells.Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol..
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification.With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharpness
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production.Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness.Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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