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Aniseed supports the digestive and respiratory systems

Aniseed

Pimpinella anisum Apiaceae

The aromatic oils in aniseed help relieve digestive discomfort and bloating, as well as supporting the respiratory system and women’s health.

Sustainability Status

Sustainability status

Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more about our sustainability guide.

Key benefits
  • Digestion
  • Respiratory support
  • Lactation
  • Menopause

  • How does it feel?

    An infusion of the seeds (ground slightly before steeping) provides a deep, golden-orange tea, which appear thick and enticing. You can also chew directly on the seeds to release the oils and aromatic sweetness. The infusion smells sweet, fragrant and slightly earthy, reminiscent of fennel and licorice, which is inviting to drink. It is the volatile oils that give this characteristic sweet, aromatic scent and flavour (1). The taste is more bland than expected from the aroma, indicating the presence of volatile oils on the stream. The taste is sweet and comforting, with a slightly sharp sourness, due to the volatile oils.

    The sweetness quickly dissipates leaving a more earthy taste in the mouth, with only a mild after-taste, and no astringency or bitterness. There is a heartiness to drinking this tea that is almost nutty and feels nutritious and filling. It can be felt gently moving down through the digestive tract creating a relaxation that can be felt throughout the intestines. This is due to the aromatic oils, exerting spasmolytic and carminative actions throughout the digestive tract.

    Aniseed plant (Pimpinella anisum)
    Aniseed yellow (Pimpinella anisum)
    Aniseed seed (Pimpinella anisum)

  • What can I use it for?

    Aniseed yellow (Pimpinella anisum)
    Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum)

    Aniseed is a soothing, aromatic, carminative, similar to fennel, used to settle the stomach and help expel trapped gas (2). It works well to ease intestinal griping, colic, indigestion (dyspepsia), bloating, trapped wind and flatulence (3, 4). The aromatic taste can also help to freshen the breath and improve halitosis (bad breath) (5). 

    Aniseed is antispasmodic and will help a spasmodic cough, bronchial asthma and whooping cough (6). The mucolytic and expectorant actions help to thin mucus and break up catarrh so it can be more easily expelled from the lungs (2, 4). Aniseed is also antimicrobial, so combined with the other actions on the lungs it works well to prevent infections from developing in the lung tissue (3). 

    Aniseed can be taken to increase milk secretion and support lactation (6, 7).

    Safety note: See section on safety before taking aniseed during pregnancy or lactation. 

    The pleasant-tasting, licorice-like seeds can be added as flavour to foods such as breads, cakes, biscuits, soups and pickles (1). When incorporated into food, the seeds add flavour and act as a digestive aid and breath freshener (5). Many alcoholic drinks which are considered an “aperitif” contain anise, such as Pernod, Ouzo and Anisette (5). 

  • Into the heart of aniseed

    Aniseed is sweet and pungent, warm, and dry (2, 5). Wood described aniseed as warm and moist, and suited to tissue states that are atrophic and cold (4). An atrophic tissue state refers to a dryness and lack of fluids or oils in a tissue (4). This impairs the functioning of the body as there is a difficulty absorbing nutrients or removing waste. An indication for an atrophic tissue state would be dry skin, nervousness, restlessness, constipation, gas and bloating (4). Cold and dry tissues require the nourishment, relaxation, movement, warmth and oils, which can all be provided by aniseed. Interestingly, aniseed can be drying where there is excessive mucus in the lungs and digestive tract, yet bring moisture and function back to very dry tissues.

  • Traditional uses

    Aniseed seeds (Pimpinella anisum)
    Aniseed seeds (Pimpinella anisum)

    Aniseed has been used in England since the 14th century (8). It was used as a spice in cakes, cordials and liqueurs to be consumed at the end of a meal to prevent indigestion (8). 

    In 1898 King’s American Dispensary listed aniseed as a stimulant carminative, to be used for flatulence, flatulent colic in infants, and nausea (9). It was also recommended as an addition to other medicines to improve flavour and prevent griping and intestinal side effects (9). Aniseed was listed as a carminative in the British Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC) in 1911, recommended to physicians to be added as an ingredient in cathartic formulas to counteract any discomfort and griping caused by purgative herbs (10). Grieve supports the reputation as a carminative for flatulence, colic and griping, recommending an infusion in water or 4–20 drops of essential oil on sugar (8). It was also used for hiccups, headaches, and the seeds chewed as a breath freshener (11). 

    The BPC also listed it as an ingredient for cough mixtures due to the expectorant action (9). It was used for bronchial catarrh, pertussis (whooping cough), spasmodic cough, persistent cough, tracheitis and bronchitis (12). Grieve reports the value as a medicine for hard, dry coughs, that are difficult to expectorate. For lung conditions it was used in the form of lozenges, as well as the seeds being smoked to promote expectoration (8). A liqueur flavoured with aniseed was given for bronchitis and spasmodic asthma to soothe the bronchial tubes (8). Aniseed is still a commonly used traditional medicine for the treatment of respiratory ailments in Egypt (13).   

    Aniseed was traditionally used as an abortifacient (2). This is likely due to the mild oestrogenic action, stimulating the uterus (2). This oestrogenic effect also explains its use in folk medicine to increase libido, facilitate birth, and increase milk secretion during lactation (3). It has a long tradition globally as a galactagogue to support lactation (14, 15).

    Additionally, aniseed has reported uses in traditional medicine as an analgesic for migraine headaches, as a diuretic, for melancholy, for nightmares, and to treat epilepsy and seizures (1).

    Topically, aniseed was used for pediculosis (head lice) and scabies (12).

  • Traditional actions

    Herbs can have a wide variety of actions within the body. See the list below for this herb’s specific herbal actions.

    Western actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Aniseed flowers (Pimpinella anisum)
    Aniseed flowers (Pimpinella anisum)

    Digestive system

    The carminative and antispasmodic actions of aniseed make this herb suited to most dyspeptic conditions including colic, stomach cramps, bloating, belching, nausea and flatulence (4, 16). Clinical trials have shown that aniseed powder is effective for the treatment of functional dyspepsia (17), and this can significantly improve quality of life of these patients (18). Aniseed can alleviate symptoms of IBS, including abdominal discomfort or pain, bloating, diarrhoea, constipation severity, difficulty in defecation, gastroesophageal reflux, headache, tiredness, and improve QOL (19, 20).

    For digestive symptoms of bloating, nausea, uncomfortable trapped wind, flatulence and low appetite, aniseed mixes well with fennel and caraway seed (3). Aniseed is also effective and safe for colic in young children and babies (4). The essential oil components are responsible for the carminative and antispasmodic action, and also the antimicrobial and antioxidant properties which can further support digestive health (21). 

    For the treatment of nausea, aniseed combines well with fennel seed, chamomile, and peppermint (22). Halitosis (bad breath) can stem from digestive weakness, or stagnation in the intestines where tension is inhibiting movement (4). Aniseed can support this by both sweetening the breath, and relaxing tension in the intestines to allow movement to return. For digestive stagnation and bilious nausea, aniseed combines well with dandelion root or artichoke leaf. 

    Respiratory system

    Aniseed can be used when there is excessive mucus in the lungs causing a wet or boggy cough (3). Aniseed is a warming expectorant which is indicated when the lungs are congested, cold and damp (4). Aniseed also directly increases the mucociliary transport of mucus out of the lungs (3). When the mucus is stuck and difficult to cough up, the mucolytic and expectorant actions help to thin mucus so it can be more easily expelled from the lungs (2). The antispasmodic action also makes aniseed suited to a dry, persistent or spasmodic cough, such as occurs with whooping cough or asthma (11). The antimicrobial properties make aniseed an excellent herb for cases of acute and chronic bronchitis (6). For bronchitis, it combines well with coltsfoot, white horehound and lobelia (3). 

    Reproductive system

    Aniseed has a galactagogue action and was used as a traditional medicine to increase milk production and stimulate milk flow (25). Recently, a large-scale global survey identified aniseed as one of the most commonly used herbs during lactation, along with fennel, fenugreek and shatavari (15). This action and a positive effect on milk production has been demonstrated in animal research (25) and in a human clinical trial (7). One of the primary constituents, anethole, is structurally similar to dopamine and competitively antagonises the dopamine receptor site (7, 25). This removes the inhibitory effect of dopamine on prolactin release, and stimulates milk production (25). Increased milk secretion can prevent colic in the baby, as well as delivering the aniseed through the breast milk to further support the digestion of the baby (4). 

    Aniseed is an effective herb to reduce the frequency and severity of hot flushes during the menopause transition (26), and premenstrual syndrome (PMS) in menstruating females (27). When combined with other ingredients such as celery seed and saffron, aniseed can improve menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) and symptoms in cases of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) (24). Isolated constituents from the volatile oils in aniseed have demonstrated oestrogenic effects in laboratory assays (28). It is the combined effects on prolactin secretion, the mild oestrogenic action and the antispasmodic action which contribute to the mechanism for the increased lactation, improved menstrual dysregulation, and mitigation of menopausal hot flashes (2, 24). 

    External uses

    The volatile oils in aniseed have anti-bacterial, insecticidal and antifungal activity (22) and an oil extract can be used to treat pediculosis (head lice) or scabies (3, 12). The essential oil can be added to a carrier oil and applied directly to the skin or scalp. The extracted essential oil is analgesic, and can be used in topical applications where pain mitigation is required (22). 

  • Research

    Aniseed seed (Pimpinella anisum)
    Aniseed seed (Pimpinella anisum)

    Digestive system

    Ghoshegir and colleagues (2015) conducted a double blind, randomised clinical trial to assess the effect of aniseed on symptoms of postprandial distress in patients with functional dyspepsia (17). For a duration of four weeks, 107 patients randomly received either aniseed powder after meals (3 g, three times per day) or a placebo. Overall symptoms (including gastric discomfort, bloating, belching, fullness, pain) significantly improved in the aniseed group at weeks 2 and 4, and this improvement was maintained at the 12-week follow up. This was significantly different to the placebo group, where overall symptoms progressively worsened over the 12 weeks (17). The same group of patients reported a significant increase in all components of a quality of life (QOL) scale (including physical functioning, pain, mental health and general health) when taking the aniseed powder (18). Overall QOL significantly decreased in the placebo group, demonstrating the efficacy of aniseed powder in improving QOL in patients with functional dyspepsia (18). 

    A double-blind, parallel group clinical trial of 120 patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) compared aniseed oil capsules (600 mg per day) to a commercially available treatment (Colpermin, 187 mg) and a placebo (19). The 200 mg capsules were taken three times per day, after each meal, for a duration of four weeks. The improvement in symptoms in the aniseed group was significantly greater than the other conditions, with 75% of patients free from symptoms, and only 52% and 35% for the Colpermin and placebo groups, respectively (19). The greatest improvement occurred in the symptoms of reflux, abdominal pain, and bloating, and was maintained at the two-week follow up after the treatment ended. The same group of participants experienced a significant decrease in symptoms of depression when taking the aniseed, compared to the other two conditions (23). 

    A recent randomised, placebo-controlled trial, published in 2024 investigated the efficacy and safety of aniseed powder for treating gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with COVID-19 (20). In the treatment group, 45 patients took 50 g aniseed powder per day (25 g, twice per day), compared to 180 patients taking a placebo, for two weeks. Compared to the placebo group, the aniseed treatment significantly improved symptoms of abdominal pain, loss of appetite and diarrhoea, but not flatulence or nausea. The authors concluded that aniseed may directly inhibit the viral replication and reduce the COVID-19 pathological process with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and hepatoprotective actions, reducing any associated gut dysbiosis (20).

    Aniseed plant (Pimpinella anisum)
    Aniseed plant (Pimpinella anisum)

    Female reproductive system

    A study in 2021 reviewed the research exploring the efficacy of aniseed for female disorders, and identified five clinical trials. The study concluded that aniseed is effective in treatment of postpartum pain, menstrual pain (dysmenorrhea), PCOS, hot flash during menopause and improved lactation (24). The majority of the studies used aniseed combined with other ingredients, though aniseed did make up a large proportion (75%) of the formulas. 

    Lactation

    Khalili et al. (2023) conducted a human clinical trial to investigate the effect of aniseed on lactation and weight gain in preterm infants (7). Three parallel groups of participants consumed either aniseed tea (6 g per day), black tea placebo, or no intake control, for seven days. With the exception of day two, the aniseed tea resulted in a significantly greater daily volume of milk production than the placebo or control groups. There was an increase in milk production in all groups from day 1–7, but the magnitude of the increase was far greater in the aniseed group compared to the placebo or control (131 ml, 38 ml, and 42 ml, respectively). No adverse side effects were reported in the study, and it was concluded that aniseed is a safe and effective herbal tea to increase lactation, and support weight gain in preterm infants (7). 

    Using an animal model, both a water and alcohol extract of aniseed (0.5 and 1 g/kg) significantly increased milk production and infant weight gain in rats (25). The study demonstrated a therapeutic effect at these doses, and also that high doses (3–5 g/kg) had low toxicity, and low risk to suckling infants (25).

    PMS

    A randomised double-blind controlled clinical trial of 68 menstruating females with PMS explored the effect of aniseed capsules on symptoms (27). Either 330 mg of aniseed or a placebo capsule was consumed for two consecutive menstrual cycles. The authors conclude that aniseed was effective at significantly decreasing symptoms of PMS. However, the results should be interpreted with caution, since closer inspection of the data shows there was also a significant decrease in symptoms in the placebo group (27). 

    Menopause

    A clinical trial of 72 postmenopausal women compared the effect of aniseed capsules (300 mg, three times per day) to a placebo control group (26). The frequency and severity of hot flashes were assessed at baseline and after four weeks. In the aniseed group, the frequency of hot flashes significantly decreased, with no difference in the placebo group. The severity of the hot flashes significantly decreased by 75% in the aniseed group when compared to the placebo group (26). 

  • Did you know?

    Aniseed is a key ingredient in liqueurs such as Pernod, Pastis, Ouzo, and Sambuca, which are traditionally consumed after meals as a “digestif” to support digestion.

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    Aniseed comes from the anise plant, an annual which grows to about two feet (60 cm) tall (5). The bright green feathery leaves are divided into many leaflets (5, 8). It has clusters of white flowering umbels, which flower in midsummer (5, 8). The small fruit (seeds) appear in the late summer (5). Seeds are grey-green and hairy, drying to a yellow-brown colour (11).

  • Common names

    • Anise
    • Anis (German)

  • Safety

    Aniseed is safe to consume as medicine and in cooking, although some caution is warranted in cases of allergic sensitivity and during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Aniseed is safe for consumption by children, infants and babies, but the dose needs to be adjusted based on age or body size. Aniseed should not be confused with star anise (Illicium spp.), which can have toxic effects in children (4).

    Regarding breastfeeding, a human clinical trial reported no adverse effects with a dose of 6 g per day for seven days (7). In animal models, even at high doses (2–5 g/kg), aniseed extracts have demonstrated low toxicity, and low risk to a neonate when during breastfeeding (25). However, the transferability of this data to humans requires context and individual evaluation, and aniseed should only be consumed during pregnancy and lactation under the supervision of a qualified medical herbalist.

  • Interactions

    Based on data from human clinical trials there is a possibility of aniseed having a drug interaction with: antidiabetic medications; contraceptive drugs; oestrogens; tamoxifen (29). Always consult with a medical herbalist before taking herbs with possible drug interactions.

  • Contraindications

    Aniseed should be avoided internally and externally by those with allergic hypersensitivity to anise or anethole (30). Aniseed oil may cause contact dermatitis and should be avoided in inflammatory or allergic skin conditions (12).

    Aniseed has a relaxing effect on the lower oesophageal sphincter and should not be taken by anyone who experiences acid reflux from the stomach into the oesophagus (30). 

    Due to the potential estrogenic effects of anise it should be avoided in hormone sensitive conditions such as breast cancer, uterine cancer, ovarian cancer, endometriosis, and uterine fibroids (29).

    Avoid in pregnancy due to the estrogenic effects of the essential oils (anethole) in aniseed, and the traditional use as an abortifacient (2, 30). Although aniseed is used to promote lactation, and low toxicity is evident from clinical trials, only consume when breast-feeding under the guidance of a medical practitioner (30). You can find qualified medical herbal professionals on our Resource page.

  • Preparation

    Infusion: The seeds should be gently crushed just before use to release the volatile oils contained in the external coat of the seed (3, 9). Leave to steep for 5–10 minutes in a covered cup/pot to prevent the volatile oils from escaping (3). Drink before meals to treat flatulence, and after meals to support digestion (3).  

  • Dosage

    Infusion: ½–1 teaspoon (0.5–1 g), 1–3 times per day (3, 11). Take 50–200ml, three times a day (2).  

    Tincture (1,5, 40–50%): 1–3 ml, 3 times per day (2, 3). Up to 20–40 ml/week of a 1:2 extract (6)

    Topical: Preparations containing 5–10% essential oil (16)

    Powder: 1–9 g per day (17, 18, 26). Up to 20 g per day (12)

    Aniseed oil capsules: 600 mg per day (19)

    Aniseed extract capsules: 900 mg per day (26)

  • Plant parts used

    Dried seeds / fruit

  • Constituents

    • Essential oils (1.5–6%): Anethol (70–95%), dianethole, photoanethole, estragole (3, 6, 8, 12)
    • Fatty oils (8–30%) (3, 6, 11)
    • Coumarins: Bergapten, umbelliferone, scopoletin (3, 12).
    • Flavonoids: Rutin, isovitexin, quercetin, luteolin, apigenin (3, 12)
    • Phenylpropenyl esters (oil soluble): Anethole (6, 21)
Aniseed illustration (Pimpinella anisum)

  • Habitat

    Aniseed is native to Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Cyprus, and Egypt (31). It has been introduced across southern and eastern Europe, India, North Africa, Central and South America, and China (31).

    It is an annual and grows primarily in countries with a warm temperature biome (31). It is cultivated in English gardens but the seeds only ripen during hot summers (8).

  • Sustainability

    Habitat loss and over-harvesting from the wild are two of the biggest threats faced by medicinal plant species. There are an increasing number of well-known herbal medicines at risk of extinction. We must, therefore, ensure that we source our medicines with sustainability in mind.

    The herb supplement industry is growing at a rapid rate and until recent years a vast majority of medicinal plant produce in global trade was of unknown origin. There are some very real and urgent issues surrounding sustainability in the herb industry. These include environmental factors that affect the medicinal viability of herbs, the safety of the habitats that they are taken from, as well as the welfare of workers in the trade.

    The botanical supply chain efforts for improved visibility (transparency and traceability) into verifiably sustainable production sites around the world are now certificated through the emergence of credible international voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality and safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

    Aniseed is not listed on CITES (32), is unranked by Nature serve (33), and is not listed by United Plant Savers (34) nor IUCN (35).

    Aniseed has no status ranking by Nature Serve, it does not appear on the U.S. Endangered Species Act (33), it is not listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (35), and it is not on the United Plant Savers “Species at-risk” list (34).

  • Quality control

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take, however, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputed supplier. Sometimes herbs bought from disreputable sources are contaminated, adulterated or substituted with incorrect plant matter.

    Some important markers for quality to look for would be to look for certified organic labelling, ensuring that the correct scientific/botanical name is used and that suppliers can provide information about the source of ingredients used in the product.

    A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from. There is more space for contamination and adulteration when the supply chain is unknown.

  • How to grow

    The plant only grows from seed, sown in spring, and will only mature to seed if the weather is warm enough (8, 11). It prefers dry, light soil in full sun (5). The seeds (fruit) are gathered from July–September, when ripe and dry (3, 11).

  • Recipe

    Aniseeds can be added to cakes, puddings, breads and biscuits.

    Take a look at this delicious recipe for Italian Aniseed Bread.

  • References

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    6. Bone K and Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2013.
    7. Khalili S, Amiri-Farahani L, Haghani S, Bordbar A, Shojaii A, Pezaro S. The effect of Pimpinella Anisum herbal tea on human milk volume and weight gain in the preterm infant: a randomized controlled clinical trial. BMC complementary medicine and therapies. 2023;23(1):19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-023-03848-6 
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    18. Ghoshegir SA, Mazaheri M, Ghannadi A, Feizi A, Babaeian M, Tanhaee M, Karimi M, Adibi P. Pimpinella anisum in modifying the quality of life in patients with functional dyspepsia: A double-blind randomized clinical trial. Journal of research in medical sciences: the official journal of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. 2014 Dec;19(12):1118. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4333517/ 
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    34. UpS list of herbs & analogs. United Plant Savers. Published May 14, 2021. Accessed June 26, 2024. https://unitedplantsavers.org/ups-list-of-herbs-analogs/ 
    35. IUCN red list of threatened species: Brassica nigra. IUCN. May 27, 2019. Accessed June 26, 2024. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search/list?query=Pimpinella_anisum&searchType=species

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent taste
The puckering taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Blue-purple colouring
Any fruits with a blue-purple colouring contain high levels of the polyphenols known as anthocyanins. These work 1) on the walls of small blood vessels, helping to maintain capillary structure to reduce a key stage in inflammation, and improving the microcirculation to the tissues; 2) to improve retinal function and vision; 3) to support connective tissue repair around the body.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
New-mown hay aroma
The familiar country odour of haymaking, of drying grass and other plants, is largely produced by coumarins (originally isolated from tonka beans – in French coumarou) and widely used in perfumery. They are chemically categorised as benzopyrone lactones and are important phytochemicals, with strong antioxidant activity in the laboratory and likely effects in modulating inflammation. They were most often associated with the calming effect linked to their use in stuffing mattresses and pillows and plants, high In coumarins were commonly used for these properties.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharpness
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.

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