Cordyceps is a fungus native to Tibet, where it has been used as medicine for centuries. In light of its growing popularity, Julia Behrens explores the sustainability of cordyceps, including the implications of its collection and cultivation.
The name cordyceps, is derived from two Latin words that aptly describe its appearance — “cord” meaning “club”, and “ceps” meaning “head”. It was first discovered approximately 1,500 years ago by herdsmen in the Tibetan mountains, whose livestock encountered it while grazing. Naturally grown cordyceps is now used as a traditional Chinese medicine in Tibet, China, Japan, Korea and other Eastern Asian countries (1).
Cordyceps holds a rich history in traditional Chinese and Tibetan medicine dating back to the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD)(1). Interestingly, ancient practices have now aligned with modern scientific discoveries. Today, as Chinese medicine, it is used to enhance vitality, boost the immune system, tonify the kidneys and lungs, support prolonged elderly convalescence and for pain relief.2 Cordyceps has proved to be effective in improving athletic performance, increasing testosterone levels and treating erectile dysfunction (2,3). Studies show that it possesses anti-tumour properties, is an antiviral, modulates the immune system and has the ability to control blood glucose levels (4,5,6).
What is cordyceps?
- Scientific name: Ophiocordyceps sinensis syn Cordyceps sinensis
- Chinese name: Dong chong xia cao (or yartsa gunbu)
- English name: Caterpillar fungus
- Key Benefits: Sexual function, energy, diabetes, lung function, kidney support and liver disorders
- Actions: Anti-inflammatory, adaptogenic, anti-cancer, antiviral and fertility enhancer
Where does cordyceps grow?
The cordyceps fungi typically grows in high-altitude regions, specifically, the Himalayas, including Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and parts of China. Globally, there are several hundred species of the fungus. Out of these, Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Cordyceps militaris are most commonly used for medicinal purposes. Ophiocordyceps sinensis was the species originally harvested for medicine; however, due to overharvesting and current scarcity in the wild, the militaris species is now widely cultivated on grain substrate due to its shorter life cycle and sustainable cultivation methods. Cordyceps militaris has been shown to have higher levels of the constituent cordycepin than the sinensis species, making it a viable and effective alternative (7).
Cordyceps sinensis has a unique parasiticlife cycle which distinguishes it from other medicinal fungi being that it grows on insect larvae of ghost moths as opposed to a plant. The fungus infiltrates and proceeds to mummify the larvae, resulting in the emergence of a fruiting body from the ground — a process that contributes to the species’ popularity and intrigue.
In the wild, cordyceps fungi typically begin their fruiting season in the spring, with sightings as early as mid-April in places such as the eastern slopes of the Tibetan Plateau. Its growth generally escalates widely in May, lasting for around six weeks, although higher altitudes delay fruiting thus extending the harvest period in these particular areas. By mid-June to mid-July, the harvest season comes to an end but reports indicate that mature fruit bodies, albeit less valuable, may still be found through to August (7).
At least a dozen species of cordyceps have been documented in the British Isles. The most prevalent of these is Cordyceps militaris, also known as scarlet caterpillarclub however, its fruit is small and difficult to find. This species is found in grasslands or along the edges of mossy woodlands. It is occasionally found growing from moth pupae larvae, nestled beneath the soil in spring.
The global market
In Western society, the dried and ground mycelium (the fungal threads or “hyphae”) of cordycepsis mostly consumed as a powder or pill. The popularity of this fungi has exposed it to overharvesting and most supplements on the market will likely be from the militaris species. It continues to be foraged in the wild, but is now more commonly cultivated on silkworm larvae or grain-based substrate. This practice reduces stress on the ecosystem while providing a sustainable traceable supply for the public and allows it to be sold for a fraction of the price. It is worth noting that Cordyceps militaris is grown on grains in the UK and is considered to be suitable for a vegan diet. Studies have shown the militaris species to have higher levels of the active constituents than the sinensis type including the nucleosides adenosine and cordycepin (8).
The quality of the caterpillar fungus, or as Tibetans call it, yartsa gunbu, is primarily assessed on the size of the larva, this also determines the number of specimens needed to yield one pound (500g). It takes 800 to 900 dried and cleaned specimens to yield one pound (500g) of high quality yartsa gunbu, 1200 to 1500 specimens to yield this weight and be classed as medium-quality, and any number exceeding 1500 is considered to be low quality. In the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR), Himalayan yartsa gunbu of acceptable quality usually requires 1500 to 2000 specimens, and sometimes even up to 2500 to reach one pound (9).
In addition to larval size, the quality of the cordyceps fungus is also assessed by the size ratio between the stroma (the fruit body growing from the larva’s head) and the insect larva. The most desirable yartsa gunbu has a stroma slightly shorter, or, not significantly longer, than the larva. This ratio is believed to be indicative of the optimal harvest point, which maximises the medicinal potency (9).
While most mushrooms are extremely high in beta-glucans and polysaccharides, both useful in cancer therapies, research shows that the optimal point to harvest cordyceps for maximum potency involves isolating bioactive compounds called nucleoside derivatives, such as cordycepin. Cordycepin has demonstrated the ability to reduce viral replication and inflammation which enhances the body’s capability to combat disease (10). This compound is abundant in cultured Cordyceps militaris but slightly lower in natural Cordyceps sinensis (11). In contrast, Cordyceps sinensis has shown elevated adenosine levels which improves cardiovascular function and boosts energy. However, both molecules have very similar structures — adenosine (C10H13N5O4) and cordycepin (C10H13N5O3) — and can transform into each other and back again (8).
The above composition analysis holds significance for the cordyceps global market. Cultivated cordyceps is more desirable on the global market when high in levels of its bioactive compounds. Sequentially, this has an effect on cultivation practices, trade dynamics and public health. Variations in the levels of active ingredients have resulted in the development of hybrid strains and cultivation practices that mimic or enhance those found in the natural environment. Often, hot-water double extractions are used alongside hybridised mycelium to increase the overall medicinal effect. The preparation process of the mushroom is crucial to the constituent composition and therefore medicinal potency of the end product — an important consideration for consumers.
The global Cordyceps militaris market reached an astonishing $6859 million in 2021 and is forecasted to surge to a staggering $12564.96 million by 2031. Gaining a deeper understanding of the constituent profile of the nucleoside and nucleobase content could shape consumer preferences, inform product development strategies, and guide marketing efforts, particularly in terms of enhancing desirable traits or deepening our understanding of the mushroom’s biology.
Regulating cordyceps trade
Caterpillar fungus holds economic importance in Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas where it is revered as yartsa gunbu or dong chong xia cao. This unique fungal economy has seen a staggering 900% increase in value between 1997 and 2008, primarily driven by Chinese consumers. However, despite this economic significance, there is a lack of comprehensive annual production data, especially in areas like China, India, Nepal, and Bhutan (12).
There is a very real need for ongoing research and protection to monitor the impact of harvesting practices on caterpillar fungus populations and their ecosystems. It is also important to recognize the financial role that cordyceps plays in rural communities. An absence of this mushroom in these areas due to over-harvesting or climate change could have catastrophic consequences. This natural resource not only provides a primary income but also facilitates access to crucial services such as healthcare, education, and transportation. Moreover, it enables access to bank loans, a previously unattainable prospect for rural Tibetans. The revenue generated from the collection and trade of this invaluable mycomedicine has empowered marginalised communities (13). Where once disputes predominantly revolved around grazing rights, they now centre on access to caterpillar fungus resources. Since 2004, the harvest and sale of yartsa gunbu contributed to 40% of the annual cash income for rural households and 8.5% of the region’s GDP. However, harvesters are now reporting decreasing yields raising concerns about sustainability and future economic impacts (9).
The vast difference in price between cultivated and wild-harvested cordyceps is remarkable. Cultivated cordyceps, typically produced in controlled environments, is much more affordable due to its mass-production. In contrast, wild-harvested cordyceps, often gathered from remote mountain regions, commands high prices due to its rarity and the difficulty of harvesting. Since the 1970s the cost of cordyceps on the global market has greatly increased. According to wild mushroom expert, Fred Gilam, the cost of cultivated cordyceps can be $15 per kilogram, and in comparison, a wild harvest can be $30,000 per kilo (14).
Available production data and estimates suggest an annual production range of 85 to 185 tons across all production areas. While centuries of collection indicate the resilience of this resource, unprecedented harvesting intensity, coupled with climate change and economic dependence on cordyceps, necessitates sustainable resource management. Cultivation presents a sustainable alternative.
Ensuring that cordyceps products are genuine and of high-quality is crucial for consumer safety. Because of this, it is important to create management plans supported by the community and traders. These plans should prevent adulterated products and ensure authenticity and quality. Regulatory bodies can use this information to establish quality standards, labelling requirements, and safety guidelines for cordyceps products. Additionally, understanding the differences between natural and cultivated cordyceps can inform regulations related to their harvesting, cultivation, preparation and trade to ensure sustainability, fair trade and quality control is met.
Implementing such regulations requires collaboration between stakeholders, including local communities, governmental bodies, and scientific institutions. Community involvement is essential for garnering support and ensuring compliance with regulations. Education and awareness programs would help stakeholders understand the importance of sustainable harvesting practices and the long-term benefits that they offer.
One promising strategy from socio-economic, conservation biology and mycological perspectives is the establishment of regulations surrounding harvesting including imposing a month time limit for harvesting, as well as issuing harvesting permits for local residents only. These regulatory measures could facilitate sufficient spore dispersal which would ensure sustainability (9). By setting a regulated time frame for the wild harvest, it would allow the fungus to complete its life cycle and aid natural propagation. In addition to regulating harvesting practices, measures should also be taken to combat illegal harvesting and trade. Some feel that imposing penalties for illegal activities can help deter such practices and protect the resource from over-exploitation (15) Through introducing Fair trade Certification for cordyceps this could help to increase income for local communities and promote a structured market where harvesters gain control over pricing. Another initiative could involve providing alternative income opportunities for the local community in the form of non-timber forest products, thereby reducing a reliance on cordyceps and creating a more resilient local economy.
Overall, the study’s insights into the composition of cordyceps, its implications for use, market dynamics, and trade regulation are highly relevant to understanding and managing the global cordyceps industry. Ensuring the safety and efficacy of cordyceps products hinges on rigorous quality control measures. Both wild-collected and commercially cultivated cordyceps could undergo meticulous high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis to verify consistent chemical profiles and clinical interchangeability (16).
In conclusion, regulating the trade of cordyceps is essential for balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability. By implementing measures such as end dates for the harvest season, involving local communities, conducting research, and combating illegal activities, we can ensure the long-term viability of this valuable resource while supporting the livelihoods of those dependent on it.
Advances in lab testing have advertised the medicinal properties and desirable health benefits of cordyceps, causing an increase in demand. Research should now focus on understanding the ecology and biology of the cordyceps fungi for future development and this will lead to more sustainable agriculture practices, higher crop yields, and better food security which are all essential for addressing global challenges like population growth and climate change (17). Responsible harvesting practices focusing on the cultivation of cordyceps in controlled environments will reduce pressure on wild populations.
References
Special thanks to Fred Gillam, mushroom expert
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- Lee HH, Park C, Jeong JW, Kim MJ, Seo MJ, Kang BW, Park JU, Kim GY, Choi BT, Choi YH, Jeong YK. Apoptosis induction of human prostate carcinoma cells by cordycepin through reactive oxygen species-mediated mitochondrial death pathway. Int J Oncol. 2013 Mar;42(3):1036-44. doi: 10.3892/ijo.2013.1762. Epub 2013 Jan 4. PMID: 23292300.
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- Cordycepin is a novel chemical suppresor of Epstein Barr virus replication.Rye, E. et al., Oncoscience; 1(12) : 866-881 DOI:10.18632/ONCOSCIENCE.110
- Anyu AT, Zhang WH, Xu QH. Cultivated Cordyceps: A Tale of Two Treasured Mushrooms. Chinese Medicine and Culture. 2021;4(4):221-227. doi:https://doi.org/10.4103/cmac.cmac_41_21
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